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FIRST EPILOGUE： 1813 … 20
CHAPTER I
Seven years had passed。 The storm…tossed sea of European history had
subsided within its shores and seemed to have become calm。 But the
mysterious forces that move humanity （mysterious because the laws of
their motion are unknown to us） continued to operate。
Though the surface of the sea of history seemed motionless； the
movement of humanity went on as unceasingly as the flow of time。
Various groups of people formed and dissolved； the coming formation
and dissolution of kingdoms and displacement of peoples was in
course of preparation。
The sea of history was not driven spasmodically from shore to
shore as previously。 It was seething in its depths。 Historic figures
were not borne by the waves from one shore to another as before。
They now seemed to rotate on one spot。 The historical figures at the
head of armies； who formerly reflected the movement of the masses by
ordering wars； campaigns； and battles； now reflected the restless
movement by political and diplomatic combinations； laws； and treaties。
The historians call this activity of the historical figures 〃the
reaction。〃
In dealing with this period they sternly condemn the historical
personages who； in their opinion； caused what they describe as the
reaction。 All the well…known people of that period； from Alexander and
Napoleon to Madame de Stael； Photius； Schelling； Fichte；
Chateaubriand； and the rest； pass before their stern judgment seat and
are acquitted or condemned according to whether they conduced to
progress or to reaction。
According to their accounts a reaction took place at that time in
Russia also； and the chief culprit was Alexander I； the same man who
according to them was the chief cause of the liberal movement at the
commencement of his reign； being the savior of Russia。
There is no one in Russian literature now； from schoolboy essayist
to learned historian； who does not throw his little stone at Alexander
for things he did wrong at this period of his reign。
〃He ought to have acted in this way and in that way。 In this case he
did well and in that case badly。 He behaved admirably at the beginning
of his reign and during 1812； but acted badly by giving a constitution
to Poland； forming the Holy Alliance； entrusting power to Arakcheev；
favoring Golitsyn and mysticism； and afterwards Shishkov and
Photius。 He also acted badly by concerning himself with the active
army and disbanding the Semenov regiment。〃
It would take a dozen pages to enumerate all the reproaches the
historians address to him； based on their knowledge of what is good
for humanity。
What do these reproaches mean？
Do not the very actions for which the historians praise Alexander
I （the liberal attempts at the beginning of his reign； his struggle
with Napoleon； the firmness he displayed in 1812 and the campaign of
1813） flow from the same sources… the circumstances of his birth；
education； and life… that made his personality what it was and from
which the actions for which they blame him （the Holy Alliance； the
restoration of Poland； and the reaction of 1820 and later） also
flowed？
In what does the substance of those reproaches lie？
It lies in the fact that an historic character like Alexander I；
standing on the highest possible pinnacle of human power with the
blinding light of history focused upon him； a character exposed to
those strongest of all influences： the intrigues； flattery； and
self…deception inseparable from power； a character who at every moment
of his life felt a responsibility for all that was happening in
Europe； and not a fictitious but a live character who like every man
had his personal habits； passions； and impulses toward goodness；
beauty； and truth… that this character… though not lacking in virtue
（the historians do not accuse him of that）… had not the same
conception of the welfare of humanity fifty years ago as a present…day
professor who from his youth upwards has been occupied with
learning： that is； with books and lectures and with taking notes
from them。
But even if we assume that fifty years ago Alexander I was
mistaken in his view of what was good for the people； we must
inevitably assume that the historian who judges Alexander will also
after the lapse of some time turn out to be mistaken in his view of
what is good for humanity。 This assumption is all the more natural and
inevitable because； watching the movement of history； we see that
every year and with each new writer； opinion as to what is good for
mankind changes； so that what once seemed good； ten years later
seems bad； and vice versa。 And what is more； we find at one and the
same time quite contradictory views as to what is bad and what is good
in history： some people regard giving a constitution to Poland and
forming the Holy Alliance as praiseworthy in Alexander； while others
regard it as blameworthy。
The activity of Alexander or of Napoleon cannot be called useful
or harmful； for it is impossible to say for what it was useful or
harmful。 If that activity displeases somebody； this is only because it
does not agree with his limited understanding of what is good。 Whether
the preservation of my father's house in Moscow； or the glory of the
Russian arms； or the prosperity of the Petersburg and other
universities； or the freedom of Poland or the greatness of Russia；
or the balance of power in Europe； or a certain kind of European
culture called 〃progress〃 appear to me to be good or bad； I must admit
that besides these things the action of every historic character has
other more general purposes inaccessible to me。
But let us assume that what is called science can harmonize all
contradictions and possesses an unchanging standard of good and bad by
which to try historic characters and events； let us say that Alexander
could have done everything differently； let us say that with
guidance from those who blame him and who profess to know the ultimate
aim of the movement of humanity； he might have arranged matters
according to the program his present accusers would have given him… of
nationality； freedom； equality； and progress （these； I think； cover
the ground）。 Let us assume that this program was possible and had then
been formulated； and that Alexander had acted on it。 What would then
have become of the activity of all those who opposed the tendency that
then prevailed in the government… an activity that in the opinion of
the historians was good and beneficent？ Their activity would not
have existed： there would have been no life； there would have been
nothing。
If we admit that human life can be ruled by reason； the
possibility of life is destroyed。
EP1｜CH2
CHAPTER II
If we assume as the historians do that great men lead humanity to
the attainment of certain ends… the greatness of Russia or of
France； the balance of power in Europe； the diffusion of the ideas
of the Revolution general progress or anything else… then it is
impossible to explain the facts of history without introducing the
conceptions of chance and genius。
If the aim of the European wars at the beginning of the nineteenth
century had been the aggrandizement of Russia； that aim might have
been accomplished without all the preceding wars and without the
invasion。 If the aim wag the aggrandizement of France； that might have
been attained without the Revolution and without the Empire。 If the
aim was the dissemination of ideas； the printing press could have
accomplished that much better than warfare。 If the aim was the
progress of civilization； it is easy to see that there are other
ways of diffusing civilization more expedient than by the
destruction of wealth and of human lives。
Why did it happen in this and not in some other way？
Because it happened so！ 〃Chance created the situation； genius
utilized it；〃 says history。
But what is chance？ What is genius？
The words chance and genius do not denote any really existing
thing and therefore cannot be defined。 Those words only denote a
certain stage of understanding of phenomena。 I do not know why a
certain event occurs； I think that I cannot know it； so I do not try
to know it and I talk about chance。 I see a force producing effects
beyond the scope of ordinary human agencies； I do not understand why
this occurs and I talk of genius。
To a herd of rams； the ram the herdsman drives each evening into a
special enclosure to feed and that becomes twice as fat as the
others must seem to be a genius。 And it must appear an astonishing
conjunction of genius with a whole series of extraordinary chances
that this ram； who instead of getting into the general fold every
evening goes into a special enclosure where there are oats… that
this very ram； swelling with fat； is killed for meat。
But the rams need only cease to suppose that all that happens to
them happens solely for