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his condition；〃 says a contemporary writer； 〃wants to be something
by command of the king。〃
It was not merely the 〃natural vanity〃 of which M。 de Tocqueville
accuses his countrymen； which stirred up in them this eagerness
after place； for we see the same eagerness in other nations of the
Continent； who cannot be accused （as wholes） of that weakness。 The
fact is； a Government place； or a Government decoration； cross；
ribbon； or what not； is； in a country where self…government is
unknown or dead； the only method； save literary fame； which is left
to men in order to assert themselves either to themselves or their
fellow…men。
A British or American shopkeeper or farmer asks nothing of his
Government。 He can； if he chooses； be elected to some local office
（generally unsalaried） by the votes of his fellow…citizens。 But
that is his right； and adds nothing to his respectability。 The test
of that latter； in a country where all honest callings are equally
honourable； is the amount of money he can make； and a very sound
practical test that is； in a country where intellect and capital are
free。 Beyond that； he is what he is； and wishes to be no more； save
what he can make himself。 He has his rights； guaranteed by law and
public opinion； and as long as he stands within them； and （as he
well phrases it） behaves like a gentleman； he considers himself as
good as any man； and so he is。 But under the bureaucratic Regime of
the Continent； if a man had not 〃something by command of the king；〃
he was nothing； and something he naturally wished to be； even by
means of a Government which he disliked and despised。 So in France；
where innumerable petty posts were regular articles of sale； anyone；
it seems； who had saved a little money； found it most profitable to
invest it in a beadledom of some kindto the great detriment of the
country； for he thus withdrew his capital from trade； but to his own
clear gain； for he thereby purchased some immunity from public
burdens； and； as it were； compounded once and for all for his taxes。
The petty German princes； it seems； followed the example of France；
and sold their little beadledoms likewise； but even where offices
were not sold； they must be obtained by any and every means； by
everyone who desired not to be as other men were； and to become
Notables； as they were called in France； so he migrated from the
country into the nearest town； and became a member of some small
body…guild； town council； or what not； bodies which were infinite in
number。 In one small town M。 de Tocqueville discovers thirty…six
such bodies； 〃separated from each other by diminutive privileges；
the least honourable of which was still a mark of honour。〃
Quarrelling perpetually with each other for precedence； despising
and oppressing the very menu peuple from whom they had for the most
part sprung； these innumerable small bodies； instead of uniting
their class； only served to split it up more and more； and when the
Revolution broke them up； once and for all； with all other
privileges whatsoever； no bond of union was left； and each man stood
alone； proud of his 〃individuality〃his complete social isolation；
till he discovered that； in ridding himself of superiors； he had rid
himself also of fellows； fulfilling； every man in his own person；
the old fable of the bundle of sticks； and had to submit； under the
Consulate and the Empire； to a tyranny to which the Ancien Regime
was freedom itself。
For； in France at least； the Ancien Regime was no tyranny。 The
middle and upper classes had individual libertyit may be； only too
much； the liberty of disobeying a Government which they did not
respect。 〃However submissive the French may have been before the
Revolution to the will of the king； one sort of obedience was
altogether unknown to them。 They knew not what it was to bow before
an illegitimate and contested powera power but little honoured；
frequently despised； but willingly endured because it may be
serviceable； or because it may hurt。 To that degrading form of
servitude they were ever strangers。 The king inspired them with
feelings 。 。 。 which have become incomprehensible to this generation
。 。 。 They loved him with the affection due to a father； they
revered him with the respect due to God。 In submitting to the most
arbitrary of his commands； they yielded less to compulsion than to
loyalty； and thus they frequently preserved great freedom of mind；
even in the most complete dependence。 This liberty； irregular；
intermittent；〃 says M。 de Tocqueville； 〃helped to form those
vigorous characters； those proud and daring spirits； which were to
make the French Revolution at once the object of the admiration and
the terror of succeeding generations。〃
This libertytoo much akin to anarchy； in which indeed it issued
for awhileseems to have asserted itself in continual petty
resistance to officials whom they did not respect； and who； in their
turn； were more than a little afraid of the very men out of whose
ranks they had sprung。
The French Governmentone may say； every Government on the
Continent in those dayshad the special weakness of all
bureaucracies； namely； that want of moral force which compels them
to fall back at last on physical force； and transforms the ruler
into a bully； and the soldier into a policeman and a gaoler。 A
Government of parvenus； uncertain of its own position； will be
continually trying to assert itself to itself； by vexatious
intermeddling and intruding pretensions； and then； when it meets
with the resistance of free and rational spirits； will either recoil
in awkward cowardice； or fly into a passion； and appeal to the
halter and the sword。 Such a Government can never take itself for
granted； because it knows that it is not taken for granted by the
people。 It never can possess the quiet assurance； the courteous
dignity； without swagger； yet without hesitation； which belongs to
hereditary legislators； by which term is to be understood； not
merely kings； not merely noblemen； but every citizen of a free
nation； however democratic； who has received from his forefathers
the right； the duty； and the example of self…government。
Such was the political and social state of the Ancien Regime； not
only in France； but if we are to trust （as we must trust） M。 de
Tocqueville； in almost every nation in Europe； except Britain。
And as for its moral state。 We must look for thatif we have need；
which happily all have notin its lighter literature。
I shall not trouble you with criticisms on French memoirsof which
those of Madame de Sevigne are on the whole； the most painful （as
witness her comments on the Marquise de Brinvilliers's execution）；
because written by a woman better and more human than ordinary。 Nor
with 〃Menagiana；〃 or other 'ana'sas vain and artificial as they
are often foul； nor with novels and poems； long since deservedly
forgotten。 On the first perusal of this lighter literature； you
will be charmed with the ease； grace； lightness with which
everything is said。 On the second； you will be somewhat cured of
your admiration； as you perceive how little there is to say。 The
head proves to be nothing but a cunning mask； with no brains inside。
Especially is this true of a book； which I must beg those who have
read it already； to recollect。 To read it I recommend no human
being。 We may consider it； as it was considered in its time； the
typical novel of the Ancien Regime。 A picture of Spanish society；
written by a Frenchman； it was held to beand doubtless with
reasona picture of the whole European world。 Its French editor
（of 1836） calls it a grande epopee； 〃one of the most prodigious
efforts of intelligence； exhausting all forms of humanity〃in fact；
a second Shakespeare； according to the lights of the year 1715。 I
mean； of course； 〃Gil Blas。〃 So picturesque is the book； that it
has furnished inexhaustible motifs to the draughtsman。 So excellent
is its workmanship； that the enthusiastic editor of 1836 tells us
and doubtless he knows bestthat it is the classic model of the
French tongue； and that； as Le Sage 〃had embraced all that belonged
to man in his composition； he dared to prescribe to himself to
embrace the whole French language in his work。〃 It has been the
parent of a whole school of literaturethe Bible of tens of
thousands； with admiring commentators in plenty； on whose souls may
God have mercy！
And no wonder。 The book has a solid value； and will always have；
not merely from its perfect art （according to its own measure and
intention）； but from its perfect truthfulness。 It is the Ancien
Regime itself。 It set forth to the men thereof； themselves； without
veil or cowardly reticence of any kind； and inasmuch as every man
loves himself； the Ancien Regime loved 〃Gil Blas；〃 and said； 〃The
problem of humanity is solved at last。〃 But； ye long…suffering
powers of heaven； what a solut