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that decay and that growth a bond of cause and effect where there is
really none。 The general decay may have determined the course of
many men's thoughts； but it no more set them thinking than （as I
have heard said） the decay of the Ancien Regime produced the new
Regimea loose metaphor； which； like all metaphors； will not hold
water； and must not be taken for a philosophic truth。 That would be
to confess manwhat I shall never confess him to bethe creature
of circumstances； it would be to fall into the same fallacy of
spontaneous generation as did the ancients； when they believed that
bees were bred from the carcass of a dead ox。 In the first place；
the bees were no bees； but fliesunless when some true swarm of
honey bees may have taken up their abode within the empty ribs； as
Samson's bees did in that of the lion。 But bees or flies； each
sprang from an egg； independent of the carcass； having a vitality of
its own： it was fostered by the carcass it fed on during
development； but bred from it it was not； any more than Marat was
bred from the decay of the Ancien Regime。 There are flies which； by
feeding on putridity； become poisonous themselves； as did Marat：
but even they owe their vitality and organisation to something
higher than that on which they feed； and each of them； however；
defaced and debased； was at first a 〃thought of God。〃 All true
manhood consists in the defiance of circumstances； and if any man be
the creature of circumstances； it is because he has become so； like
the drunkard； because he has ceased to be a man； and sunk downward
toward the brute。
Accordingly we shall find； throughout the 18th century； a stirring
of thought； an originality； a resistance to circumstances； an
indignant defiance of circumstances； which would have been
impossible； had circumstances been the true lords and shapers of
mankind。 Had that latter been the case； the downward progress of
the Ancien Regime would have been irremediable。 Each generation；
conformed more and more to the element in which it lived； would have
sunk deeper in dull acquiescence to evil； in ignorance of all
cravings save those of the senses； and if at any time intolerable
wrong or want had driven it to revolt； it would have issued； not in
the proclamation of new and vast ideas； but in an anarchic struggle
for revenge and bread。
There are races； alas！ which seem； for the present at least；
mastered by circumstances。 Some； like the Chinese； have sunk back
into that state； some； like the negro in Africa； seem not yet to
have emerged from it； but in Europe； during the eighteenth century；
were working not merely new forces and vitalities （abstractions
which mislead rather than explain）； but living persons in plenty；
men and women； with independent and original hearts and brains；
instinct； in spite of all circumstances； with power which we shall
most wisely ascribe directly to Him who is the Lord and Giver of
Life。
Such persons seemedI only say seemedmost numerous in England and
in Germany。 But there were enough of them in France to change the
destiny of that great nation for awhileperhaps for ever。
M。 de Tocqueville has a whole chapter； and a very remarkable one；
which appears at first sight to militate against my beliefa
chapter 〃showing that France was the country in which men had become
most alike。〃
〃The men；〃 he says； 〃of that time； especially those belonging to the
upper and middle ranks of society； who alone were at all
conspicuous； were all exactly alike。〃
And it must be allowed； that if this were true of the upper and
middle classes； it must have been still more true of the mass of the
lowest population； who； being most animal； are always most moulded
or rather crushedby their own circumstances； by public opinion；
and by the wants of five senses； common to all alike。
But when M。 de Tocqueville attributes this curious fact to the
circumstances of their political stateto that 〃government of one
man which in the end has the inevitable effect of rendering all men
alike； and all mutually indifferent to their common fate〃we must
differ； even from him： for facts prove the impotence of that； or of
any other circumstance； in altering the hearts and souls of men； in
producing in them anything but a mere superficial and temporary
resemblance。
For all the while there was； among these very French； here and there
a variety of character and purpose； sufficient to burst through that
very despotism； and to develop the nation into manifold； new； and
quite original shapes。 Thus it was proved that the uniformity had
been only in their outside crust and shell。 What tore the nation to
pieces during the Reign of Terror； but the boundless variety and
originality of the characters which found themselves suddenly in
free rivalry？ What else gave to the undisciplined levies； the
bankrupt governments； the parvenu heroes of the Republic； a manifold
force； a self…dependent audacity； which made them the conquerors；
and the teachers （for good and evil） of the civilised world？ If
there was one doctrine which the French Revolution specially
proclaimedwhich it caricatured till it brought it into temporary
disreputeit was this： that no man is like another； that in each
is a God…given 〃individuality；〃 an independent soul； which no
government or man has a right to crush； or can crush in the long
run： but which ought to have； and must have； a 〃carriere ouverte
aux talents；〃 freely to do the best for itself in the battle of
life。 The French Revolution； more than any event since twelve poor
men set forth to convert the world some eighteen hundred years ago；
proves that man ought not to be； and need not be； the creature of
circumstances； the puppet of institutions； but； if he will； their
conqueror and their lord。
Of these original spirits who helped to bring life out of death； and
the modern world out of the decay of the mediaeval world； the French
PHILOSOPHES and encyclopaedists are； of course； the most notorious。
They confessed； for the most part； that their original inspiration
had come from England。 They were； or considered themselves； the
disciples of Locke； whose philosophy； it seems to me； their own acts
disproved。
And first； a few words on these same philosophes。 One may be
thoroughly aware of their deficiencies； of their sins； moral as well
as intellectual； and yet one may demand that everyone should judge
them fairlywhich can only be done by putting himself in their
place； and any fair judgment of them will； I think； lead to the
conclusion that they were not mere destroyers； inflamed with hate of
everything which mankind had as yet held sacred。 Whatever sacred
things they despised； one sacred thing they reverenced； which men
had forgotten more and more since the seventeenth centurycommon
justice and common humanity。 It was this； I believe； which gave
them their moral force。 It was this which drew towards them the
hearts； not merely of educated bourgeois and nobles （on the menu
peuple they had no influence； and did not care to have any）； but of
every continental sovereign who felt in himself higher aspirations
than those of a mere selfish tyrantFrederick the Great； Christina
of Sweden； Joseph of Austria； and even that fallen Juno； Catharine
of Russia； with all her sins。 To take the most extreme instance
Voltaire。 We may question his being a philosopher at all。 We may
deny that he had even a tincture of formal philosophy。 We may doubt
much whether he had any of that human and humorous common sense；
which is often a good substitute for the philosophy of the schools。
We may feel against him a just and honest indignation when we
remember that he dared to travestie into a foul satire the tale of
his country's purest and noblest heroine； but we must recollect； at
the same time； that he did a public service to the morality of his
own country； and of all Europe； by his indignationquite as just
and honest as any which we may feelat the legal murder of Calas。
We must recollect that； if he exposes baseness and foulness with too
cynical a license of speech （in which； indeed； he sinned no more
than had the average of French writers since the days of Montaigne）；
he at least never advocates them； as did Le Sage。 We must recollect
that； scattered throughout his writings； are words in favour of that
which is just； merciful； magnanimous； and even； at times； in favour
of that which is pure； which proves that in Voltaire； as in most
men； there was a double selfthe one sickened to cynicism by the
iniquity and folly which he saw around himthe other； hungering
after a nobler life； and possibly exciting that hunger in one and
another； here and there； who admired him for other reasons than the
educated mob； which cried after him 〃Vive la Pucelle。〃
Rousseau； too。 Easy it is to feel disgust； contempt； for the
〃Confessions〃 and the 〃Nouvelle Heloise〃for