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social order； there is an order which is best supported by a
religion which is adverse to free thought； free speech； free
conscience； free communion between man and God。 The more enervating
the superstition； the more exacting and tyrannous its priesthood；
the more it will do our work； if we help it to do its own。 If it
permit us to enslave the body； we will permit it to enslave the
soul。〃
And so may be inaugurated a period of that organised anarchy of
which the poet says：
It is not life； but death； when nothing stirs。
LECTURE IICENTRALISATION
The degradation of the European nobility caused； of course； the
increase of the kingly power； and opened the way to central
despotisms。 The bourgeoisie； the commercial middle class； whatever
were its virtues； its value； its real courage； were never able to
stand alone against the kings。 Their capital； being invested in
trade； was necessarily subject to such sudden dangers from war；
political change； bad seasons； and so forth； that its holders；
however individually brave； were timid as a class。 They could never
hold out on strike against the governments； and had to submit to the
powers that were； whatever they were； under penalty of ruin。
But on the Continent； and especially in France and Germany； unable
to strengthen itself by intermarriage with the noblesse； they
retained that timidity which is the fruit of the insecurity of
trade； and had to submit to a more and more centralised despotism；
and grow up as they could； in the face of exasperating hindrances to
wealth； to education； to the possession； in many parts of France； of
large landed estates； leaving the noblesse to decay in isolated
uselessness and weakness； and in many cases debt and poverty。
The systemor rather anarchyaccording to which France was
governed during this transitional period； may be read in that work
of M。 de Tocqueville's which I have already quoted； and which is
accessible to all classes； through Mr。 H。 Reeve's excellent
translation。 Every student of history is； of course； well
acquainted with that book。 But as there is reason to fear； from
language which is becoming once more too common； both in speech and
writing； that the general public either do not know it； or have not
understood it； I shall take the liberty of quoting from it somewhat
largely。 I am justified in so doing by the fact that M。 de
Tocqueville's book is founded on researches into the French
Archives； which have been made （as far as I am aware） only by him；
and contains innumerable significant facts； which are to be found
（as far as I am aware） in no other accessible work。
The French peoplesays M。 de Tocquevillemade； in 1789； the
greatest effort which was ever made by any nation to cut； so to
speak； their destiny in halves； and to separate by an abyss that
which they had heretofore been； from that which they sought to
become hereafter。 But he had long thought that they had succeeded
in this singular attempt much less than was supposed abroad； and
less than they had at first supposed themselves。 He was convinced
that they had unconsciously retained； from the former state of
society； most of the sentiments； the habits； and even the opinions；
by means of which they had effected the destruction of that state of
things； and that； without intending it； they had used its remains to
rebuild the edifice of modern society。 This is his thesis； and this
he proves； it seems to me； incontestably by documentary evidence。
Not only does he find habits which we supposeor supposed till
latelyto have died with the eighteenth century； still living and
working； at least in France； in the nineteenth； but the new opinions
which we look on usually as the special children of the nineteenth
century； he shows to have been born in the eighteenth。 France； he
considers； is still at heart what the Ancien Regime made her。
He shows that the hatred of the ruling caste； the intense
determination to gain and keep equality； even at the expense of
liberty； had been long growing up； under those influences of which I
spoke in my first lecture。
He shows； moreover； that the acquiescence in a centralised
administration； the expectation that the government should do
everything for the people； and nothing for themselves； the
consequent loss of local liberties； local peculiarities； the
helplessness of the towns and the parishes： and all which issued in
making Paris France； and subjecting the whole of a vast country to
the arbitrary dictates of a knot of despots in the capital； was not
the fruit of the Revolution； but of the Ancien Regime which preceded
it； and that Robespierre and his 〃Comite de Salut Public；〃 and
commissioners sent forth to the four winds of heaven in bonnet rouge
and carmagnole complete； to build up and pull down； according to
their wicked will； were only handling； somewhat more roughly； the
same wires which had been handled for several generations by the
Comptroller…General and Council of State； with their provincial
intendants。
〃Do you know；〃 said Law to the Marquis d'Argenson； 〃that this
kingdom of France is governed by thirty intendants？ You have
neither parliament； nor estates； nor governors。 It is upon thirty
masters of request； despatched into the provinces； that their evil
or their good； their fertility or their sterility； entirely depend。〃
To do everything for the people； and let them do nothing for
themselvesthis was the Ancien Regime。 To be more wise and more
loving than Almighty God； who certainly does not do everything for
the sons of men； but forces them to labour for themselves by bitter
need； and after a most Spartan mode of education； who allows them to
burn their hands as often as they are foolish enough to put them
into the fire； and to be filled with the fruits of their own folly；
even though the folly be one of necessary ignorance； treating them
with that seeming neglect which is after all the most provident
care； because by it alone can men be trained to experience； self…
help； science； true humanity； and so become not tolerably harmless
dolls； but men and women worthy of the name； with
The reason firm； the temperate will；
Endurance； foresight； strength； and skill；
The perfect spirit； nobly planned
To cheer； to counsel； and command。
Such seems to be the education and government appointed for man by
the voluntatem Dei in rebus revelatum； and the education； therefore；
which the man of science will accept and carry out。 But the men of
the Ancien Regimein as far as it was a Regime at alltried to be
wiser than the Almighty。 Why not？ They were not the first； nor
will be the last； by many who have made the same attempt。 So this
Council of State settled arbitrarily； not only taxes； and militia；
and roads； but anything and everything。 Its members meddled； with
their whole hearts and minds。 They tried to teach agriculture by
schools and pamphlets and prizes； they sent out plans for every
public work。 A town could not establish an octroi； levy a rate；
mortgage； sell； sue； farm； or administer their property； without an
order in council。 The Government ordered public rejoicings； saw to
the firing of salutes； and illuminating of housesin one case
mentioned by M。 de Tocqueville； they fined a member of the burgher
guard for absenting himself from a Te Deum。 All self…government was
gone。 A country parish was； says Turgot； nothing but 〃an assemblage
of cabins； and of inhabitants as passive as the cabins they dwelt
in。〃 Without an order of council； the parish could not mend the
steeple after a storm； or repair the parsonage gable。 If they
grumbled at the intendant； he threw some of the chief persons into
prison； and made the parish pay the expenses of the horse patrol；
which formed the arbitrary police of France。 Everywhere was
meddling。 There were reports on statisticscircumstantial；
inaccurate； and uselessas statistics are too often wont to be。
Sometimes； when the people were starving； the Government sent down
charitable donations to certain parishes； on condition that the
inhabitants should raise a sum on their part。 When the sum offered
was sufficient； the Comptroller…General wrote on the margin； when he
returned the report to the intendant； 〃Goodexpress satisfaction。〃
If it was more than sufficient； he wrote； 〃Goodexpress
satisfaction and sensibility。〃 There is nothing new under the sun。
In 1761； the Government； jealous enough of newspapers； determined to
start one for itself； and for that purpose took under its tutelage
the Gazette de France。 So the public newsmongers were of course to
be the provincial intendants； and their sub…newsmongers； of course；
the sub…delegates。
But alas！ the poor sub…delegates seem to have found either very
little news； or very little which it was politic to publish。 One
reports that a smuggler of salt has been hung； and