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little news； or very little which it was politic to publish。 One
reports that a smuggler of salt has been hung； and has displayed
great courage； another that a woman in his district has had three
girls at a birth； another that a dreadful storm has happened； but
has done no mischief； a fourthliving in some specially favoured
Utopiadeclares that in spite of all his efforts he has found
nothing worth recording； but that he himself will subscribe to so
useful a journal； and will exhort all respectable persons to follow
his example： in spite of which loyal endeavours； the journal seems
to have proved a failure； to the great disgust of the king and his
minister； who had of course expected to secure fine weather by
nailing； like the schoolboy before a holiday； the hand of the
weather…glass。
Well had it been； if the intermeddling of this bureaucracy had
stopped there。 But； by a process of evocation （as it was called）；
more and more causes； criminal as well as civil； were withdrawn from
the regular tribunals； to those of the intendants and the Council。
Before the intendant all the lower order of people were generally
sent for trial。 Bread…riots were a common cause of such trials； and
M。 de Tocqueville asserts that he has found sentences； delivered by
the intendant； and a local council chosen by himself； by which men
were condemned to the galleys； and even to death。 Under such a
system； under which an intendant must have felt it his interest to
pretend at all risks； that all was going right； and to regard any
disturbance as a dangerous exposure of himself and his chiefsone
can understand easily enough that scene which Mr。 Carlyle has
dramatised from Lacretelle； concerning the canaille； the masses； as
we used to call them a generation since：
〃A dumb generationtheir voice only an inarticulate cry。
Spokesman； in the king's council； in the world's forum； they have
none that finds credence。 At rare intervals （as now； in 1775） they
will fling down their hoes； and hammers； and； to the astonishment of
mankind； flock hither and thither； dangerous； aimless； get the
length even of Versailles。 Turgot is altering the corn trade；
abrogating the absurdest corn laws； there is dearth； real； or were
it even factitious； an indubitable scarcity of broad。 And so； on
the 2nd day of May； 1775； these waste multitudes do here； at
Versailles chateau； in widespread wretchedness； in sallow faces；
squalor； winged raggedness； present as in legible hieroglyphic
writing their petition of grievances。 The chateau…gates must be
shut； but the king will appear on the balcony and speak to them。
They have seen the king's face； their petition of grievances has
been； if not read； looked at。 In answer； two of them are hanged； on
a new gallows forty feet high； and the rest driven back to their
dens for a time。〃
Of course。 What more exasperating and inexpiable insult to the
ruling powers was possible than this？ To persist in being needy and
wretched； when a whole bureaucracy is toiling day and night to make
them prosperous and happy？ An insult only to be avenged in blood。
Remark meanwhile； that this centralised bureaucracy was a failure；
that after all the trouble taken to govern these masses； they were
not governed； in the sense of being made better； and not worse。 The
truth is； that no centralised bureaucracy； or so…called 〃paternal
government；〃 yet invented on earth； has been anything but a failure；
or is it like to be anything else： because it is founded on an
error； because it regards and treats men as that which they are not；
as things； and not as that which they are； as persons。 If the
bureaucracy were a mere Briareus giant； with a hundred hands；
helping the weak throughout the length and breadth of the empire；
the system might be at least tolerable。 But what if the Government
were not a Briareus with a hundred hands； but a Hydra with a hundred
heads and mouths； each far more intent on helping itself than on
helping the people？ What if sub…delegates and other officials；
holding office at the will of the intendant； had to live； and even
provide against a rainy day？ What if intendants； holding office at
the will of the Comptroller…General； had to do more than live； and
found it prudent to realise as large a fortune as possible； not only
against disgrace； but against success； and the dignity fit for a new
member of the Noblesse de la Robe？ Would not the system； then； soon
become intolerable？ Would there not be evil times for the masses；
till they became something more than masses？
It is an ugly name； that of 〃The Masses；〃 for the great majority of
human beings in a nation。 He who uses it speaks of them not as
human beings； but as things； and as things not bound together in one
living body； but lying in a fortuitous heap。 A swarm of ants is not
a mass。 It has a polity and a unity。 Not the ants but the fir…
needles and sticks； of which the ants have piled their nest； are a
mass。
The term； I believe； was invented during the Ancien Regime。 Whether
it was or not； it expresses very accurately the life of the many in
those days。 No one would speak； if he wished to speak exactly； of
the masses of the United States； for there every man is； or is
presumed to be； a personage； with his own independence； his own
activities； his own rights and duties。 No one； I believe； would
have talked of the masses in the old feudal times； for then each
individual was someone's man； bound to his master by ties of mutual
service； just or unjust； honourable or base； but still giving him a
personality of duties and rights； and dividing him from his class。
Dividing； I say。 The poor of the Middle Age had little sense of a
common humanity。 Those who owned allegiance to the lord in the next
valley were not their brothers； and at their own lord's bidding；
they buckled on sword and slew the next lord's men； with joyful
heart and good conscience。 Only now and then misery compressed them
into masses； and they ran together； as sheep run together to face a
dog。 Some wholesale wrong made them aware that they were brothers；
at least in the power of starving； and they joined in the cry which
was heard； I believe； in Mecklenburg as late as 1790： 〃Den Edelman
wille wi dodschlagen。〃 Then； in Wat Tyler's insurrections； in
Munster Anabaptisms； in Jacqueries； they proved themselves to be
masses； if nothing better； striking for awhile； by the mere weight
of numbers； blows terrible； though aimlesssoon to be dispersed and
slain in their turn by a disciplined and compact aristocracy。 Yet
not always dispersed； if they could find a leader； as the Polish
nobles discovered to their cost in the middle of the seventeenth
century。 Then Bogdan the Cossack； a wild warrior； not without his
sins； but having deserved well of James Sobieski and the Poles；
found that the neighbouring noble's steward had taken a fancy to his
windmill and his farm upon the Dnieper。 He was thrown into prison
on a frivolous charge； and escaped to the Tatars； leaving his wife
dishonoured； his house burnt； his infant lost in the flames； his
eldest son scourged for protesting against the wrong。 And he
returned； at the head of an army of Tatars； Socinians； Greeks； or
what not； to set free the serfs； and exterminate Jesuits； Jews； and
nobles； throughout Podolia； Volhynia； Red Russia； to desecrate the
altars of God； and slay his servants； to destroy the nobles by
lingering tortures； to strip noble ladies and maidens； and hunt them
to death with the whips of his Cossacks； and after defeating the
nobles in battle after battle； to inaugurate an era of misery and
anarchy from which Poland never recovered。
Thus did the masses of Southern Poland discover； for one generation
at least； that they were not many things； but one thing； a class；
capable of brotherhood and unity； though； alas！ only of such as
belongs to a pack of wolves。 But such outbursts as this were rare
exceptions。 In general； feudalism kept the people divided； and
therefore helpless。 And as feudalism died out； and with it the
personal self…respect and loyalty which were engendered by the old
relations of master and servant； the division still remained； and
the people； in France especially； became merely masses； a swarm of
incoherent and disorganised things intent on the necessaries of
daily bread； like mites crawling over each other in a cheese。
Out of this mass were struggling upwards perpetually； all who had a
little ambition； a little scholarship； or a little money；
endeavouring to become members of the middle class by obtaining a
Government appointment。 〃A man；〃 says M。 de Tocqueville； 〃endowed
with some education and small means； thought it not decorous to die
without having been a Government officer。〃 〃Every man； according to
his condition；〃 says a contemporary writer； 〃wants to be something
by command of the king。〃
It was not mere