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nse fields； its forests； its great empty spaces filled with glowing sunshine。 He tried to possess his troubled soul with the severe intellectual ardor of the law。 But his gift of second sight would not rest。 He could not overcome his intuition that； for all the peace and dreaminess of the outward world； destiny was upon him。 Looking out from his spiritual seclusion； he beheld what seemed to him complete political confusion； both local and national。 His despairing mood found expression a little later in the words： 〃Indeed if we were now to have a Southern convention to determine upon the true policy of the South either in the Union or out of it； I should expect to see just as much profitless discussion； disagreement； crimination； and recrimination amongst the members of it from different states and from the same state； as we witness in the present House of Representatives between Democrats； Republicans； and Americans。〃
Among the sources of confusion Stephens saw； close at home； was the Southern battle over the reopening of the slave trade。 The reality of that issue had been made plain in May； 1859； when the Southern commercial congress at Vicksburg entertained at the same time two resolutions： one； that the convention should urge all Southern States to amend their constitutions by a clause prohibiting the increase of African slavery； the other； that the convention urge all the Legislatures of Southern States to present memorials to Congress asking the repeal of the law against African slave trade。 Of these opposed resolutions； the latter was adopted on the last day of the convention*； though the moderates fought hard against it。
*It is significant that the composition of these Southern commercial congresses and the Congress of the whole Southern people was strikingly different in personnel。 Very few members of the commercial congresses reappear in the Confederate Congress。
The split between Southern moderates and Southern radicals was further indicated by their differing attitudes toward the adventurers from the United States in Central America。 The Vicksburg Convention adopted resolutions which were thinly veiled endorsements of southward expansion。 In the early autumn another Nicaraguan expedition was nipped in the bud by the vigilance of American naval forces。 Cobb； prime factor in the group of Southern moderates as well as Secretary of the Treasury； wrote to Buchanan expressing his satisfaction at the event； mentioning the work of his own department in bringing it about； and also alluding to his arrangments to prevent slave trading off the Florida coast。
But the spirit of doubt was strong even among the moderates。 Douglas was the target。 Stephens gives a glimpse of it in a letter written during his last session in Congress。 〃Cobb called on me Saturday night；〃 he writes。 〃He is exceedingly bitter against Douglas。 I joked him a good deal； and told him he had better not fight； or he would certainly be whipped； that is； in driving Douglas out of the Democratic party。 He said that if Douglas ever was restored to the confidence of the Democracy of Georgia； it would be over his dead body politically。 This shows his excitement； that is all。 I laughed at him； and told him he would run his feelings and his policy into the ground。〃 The anger of Cobb； who was himself a confessed candidate for the Democratic nomination； was imperiling the Democratic national machine which Toombs was still struggling so resolutely to hold together。 Indeed； as late as the autumn of 1859 the machine still held together。
Then came the man of destiny； the bolt from the blue； the end of the chapter。 A marvelous fanatica sort of reincarnation of the grimmest of the Covenantersby one daring act shattered the machine and made impossible any further coalition on the principle of 〃nothing doing。〃 This man of destiny was John Brown； whose attack on Harper's Ferry took place October 16th； and whose execution by the authorities of Virginia on the charges of murder and treason occurred on the 2nd of December。
The incident filled the South with consternation。 The prompt condemnation of it by many Republican leaders did not offset； in the minds of Southerners； the fury of praise accorded by others。 The South had a ghastly tradition derived chiefly from what is known as Nat Turner's Rebellion in Virginia； a tradition of the massacre of white women and children by negroes。 As Brown had set opt to rouse a slave rebellion； every Southerner familiar with his own traditions shuddered； identifying in imagination John Brown and Nat Turner。 Horror became rage when the Southerners heard of enthusiastic applause in Boston and of Emerson's description of Brown as 〃that new saint〃 who was to 〃make the gallows glorious like the cross。〃 In the excitement produced by remarks such as this； justice was not done to Lincoln's censure。 In his speech at Cooper Institute in New York； in February； 1860； Lincoln had said： 〃John Brown's effort。。。in its philosophy corresponds with the many attempts related in history at the assassination of kings and emperors。 An enthusiast broods over the oppression of a people； until he fancies himself commissioned by Heaven to liberate them。 He ventures the attempt which ends in little else than in his own execution。〃 A few months afterwards； the Republican national convention condemned the act of Brown as 〃among the gravest of crimes。〃
An immediate effect of the John Brown episode was a passionate outburst from all the radical press of the South in defense of slavery。 The followers of Yancey made the most of their opportunity。 The men who voted at Vicksburg to reopen the slave trade could find no words to measure their hatred of every one who； at this moment of crisis； would not declare slavery a blessing。 Many of the men who opposed the slave traders also felt that； in the face of possible slave insurrection； the peril of their families was the one paramount consideration。 Nevertheless； it is easy for the special pleader to give a wrong impression of the sentiment of the time。 A grim desire for self…preservation took possession of the South； as well as a deadly fear of any person or any thing that tended directly or indirectly to incite the blacks to insurrection。 Northerners of abolitionist sympathies were warned to leave the country； and in some cases they were tarred and feathered。
Great anger was aroused by the detection of book…agents who were distributing a furious polemic against slavery； 〃The Impending Crisis of the South： How to Meet It〃； by Hinton Rowan Helper； a Southerner of inferior social position belonging to the class known as poor whites。 The book teemed with such sentences as this； addressing slaveholders： 〃Do you aspire to become victims of white non…slave…holding vengeance by day and of barbarous massacres by the negroes at night？〃 It is scarcely strange； therefore； that in 1859 no Southerner would hear a good word of anyone caught distributing the book。 And yet； in the midst of all this vehement exaltation of slavery； the fight to prevent a reopening of the slave trade went bravely on。 Stephens； writing to a friend who was correspondent for the 〃Southern Confederacy〃； in Atlanta； warned him in April； 1860； 〃neither to advocate disunion or the opening of the slave trade。 The people here at present I believe are as much opposed to it as they are at the North； and I believe the Northern people could be induced to open it sooner than the Southern people。〃
The winter of 1859…1860 witnessed a famous congressional battle over the speakership。 The new Congress which met in December contained 109 Republicans； 101 Democrats； and 27 Know…Nothings。 The Republican candidate for speaker was John Sherman of Ohio。 As the first ballot showed that he could not command a majority； a Democrat from Missouri introduced this resolution 〃Whereas certain members of this House； now in nomination for speaker； did endorse the book hereinafter mentioned； resolved； That the doctrines and sentiments of a certain book； called 'The Impending Crisis of the South： How to Meet It'； are insurrectionary and hostile to the peace and tranquillity of the country； and that no member of this House； who has indorsed or recommended it； is fit to be speaker of the House。〃
During two months there were strange scenes in the House； while the clerk acted as temporary speaker and furious diatribes were thundered back and forth across the aisle that separated Republicans from Democrats； with a passage of fisticuffs or even a drawn pistol to add variety to the scene。 The end of it all was a deal。 Pennington； of the 〃People's Party〃 of New Jersey； who had supported Sherman but had not endorsed Helper； was given the Republican support； a Know…Nothing was made sergeant…at…arms； and Know…Nothing votes added to the Republican votes made Pennington speaker。 In many Northern cities the news of his election was greeted with the great salute of a hundred guns； but at Richmond the papers came out in mourning type。
Two great figures now advanced to the center of the Congressional stageJefferson Davis； Senator from Mississippi； a lean eagle of a man with piercing blue eyes； and Judah P。 Benjamin； Senator from Louisiana； whose perpetual sm