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The object of inquiry 。。。 is chiefly whether a sick person will
recover； for this purpose the nut being placed on the ground； a
relation of the sick person determines that； if the nut； when
again at rest； points to such a quarter； the east for example；
that the sick man will recover； he then prays aloud to the
patron god of the family that he will be pleased to direct the
nut so that it may indicate the truth； the nut being next spun；
the result is attended to with confidence； at least with a full
conviction that it will truly declare the intentions of the gods
at the time （vol。 ii。 p。 227）。
Does not the action of Saul； on a famous occasion； involve
exactly the same theological presuppositions？
Therefore Saul said unto Jahveh； the Elohim of Israel； Shew the
right。 And Jonathan and Saul were taken by lot： but the people
escaped。 And Saul said； Cast lots between me and Jonathan
my son。 And Jonathan was taken。 And Saul said to Jonathan； Tell
me what thou hast done。 。。。 And the people rescued Jonathan so
that he died not （1 Sam。 xiv。 41…45）。
As the Israelites had great yearly feasts； so had the
Polynesians； as the Israelites practised circumcision； so did
many Polynesian people； as the Israelites had a complex and
often arbitrary…seeming multitude of distinctions between clean
and unclean things； and clean and unclean states of men； to
which they attached great importance； so had the Polynesians
their notions of ceremonial purity and their tabu； an
equally extensive and strange system of prohibitions； violation
of which was visited by death。 These doctrines of cleanness and
uncleanness no doubt may have taken their rise in the real or
fancied utility of the prescriptions； but it is probable that
the origin of many is indicated in the curious habit of the
Samoans to make fetishes of living animals。 It will be
recollected that these people had no 〃gods made with hands；〃 but
they substituted animals for them。
At his birth
every Samoan was supposed to be taken under the care of some
tutelary god or aitu ＇= Atua＇ as it was called。 The help
of perhaps half a dozen different gods was invoked in succession
on the occasion； but the one who happened to be addressed just
as the child was born was marked and declared to be the child's
god for life。
These gods were supposed to appear in some visible
incarnation； and the particular thing in which his god was
in the habit of appearing was； to the Samoan； an object of
veneration。 It was in fact his idol； and he was careful never to
injure it or treat it with contempt。 One； for instance； saw his
god in the eel； another in the shark； another in the turtle；
another in the dog； another in the owl； another in the lizard；
and so on； throughout all the fish of the sea and birds and
four…footed beasts and creeping things。 In some of the shell…
fish even； gods were supposed to be present。 A man would eat
freely of what was regarded as the incarnation of the god of
another man； but the incarnation of his own particular god he
would consider it death to injure or eat。〃
We have here that which appears to be the origin； or one of the
origins； of food prohibitions； on the one hand； and of totemism
on the other。 When it is remembered that the old Israelites
sprang from ancestors who are said to have resided near； or in；
one of the great seats of ancient Babylonian civilisation； the
city of Ur； that they had been； it is said for centuries； in
close contact with the Egyptians； and that； in the theology of
both the Babylonians and the Egyptians； there is abundant
evidence； notwithstanding their advanced social organisation； of
the belief in spirits； with sorcery； ancestor…worship； the
deification of animals； and the converse animalisation of gods
it obviously needs very strong evidence to justify the belief
that the rude tribes of Israel did not share the notions from
which their far more civilised neighbours had not
emancipated themselves。
But it is surely needless to carry the comparison further。
Out of the abundant evidence at command； I think that sufficient
has been produced to furnish ample grounds for the belief； that
the old Israelites of the time of Samuel entertained theological
conceptions which were on a level with those current among the
more civilised of the Polynesian islanders； though their ethical
code may possibly； in some respects； have been
more advanced。
A theological system of essentially similar character；
exhibiting the same fundamental conceptions respecting the
continued existence and incessant interference in human affairs
of disembodied spirits； prevails； or formerly prevailed； among
the whole of the inhabitants of the Polynesian and Melanesian
islands； and among the people of Australia； notwithstanding the
wide differences in physical character and in grade of
civilisation which obtain among them。 And the same proposition
is true of the people who inhabit the riverain shores of the
Pacific Ocean whether Dyaks； Malays； Indo…Chinese； Chinese；
Japanese； the wild tribes of America； or the highly civilised
old Mexicans and Peruvians。 It is no less true of the Mongolic
nomads of Northern Asia； of the Asiatic Aryans and of the
Ancient Greeks and Romans； and it holds good among the
Dravidians of the Dekhan and the negro tribes of Africa。
No tribe of savages which has yet been discovered； has been
conclusively proved to have so poor a theological equipment as
to be devoid of a belief in ghosts； and in the utility of some
form of witchcraft； in influencing those ghosts。 And there is no
nation； modern or ancient； which； even at this moment； has
wholly given up the belief； and in which it has not； at one time
or other； played a great part in practical life。
This sciotheism； as it might be called； is found； in
several degrees of complexity； in rough correspondence with the
stages of social organisation； and； like these； separated by no
sudden breaks。
In its simplest condition； such as may be met with among the
Australian savages； theology is a mere belief in the existence；
powers； and disposition （usually malignant） of ghostlike
entities who may be propitiated or scared away； but no cult can
properly be said to exist。 And； in this stage； theology is
wholly independent of ethics。 The moral code； such as is implied
by public opinion； derives no sanction from the theological
dogmas； and the influence of the spirits is supposed to be
exerted out of mere caprice or malice。
As a next stage； the fundamental fear of ghosts and the
consequent desire to propitiate them acquire an organised ritual
in simple forms of ancestor…worship； such as the Rev。 Mr。 Turner
describes among the people of Tanna （l。c。 p。 88）； and
this line of development may be followed out until it attains
its acme in the State…theology of China and the Kami…
theology of Japan。 Each of these is essentially ancestor…
worship； the ancestors being reckoned back through family
groups； of higher and higher order； sometimes with strict
reference to the principle of agnation； as in old Rome； and； as
in the latter； it is intimately bound up with the whole
organisation of the State。 There are no idols； inscribed tablets
in China； and strips of paper lodged in a peculiar portable
shrine in Japan； represent the souls of the deceased； or the
special seats which they occupy when sacrifices are offered by
their descendants。 In Japan it is interesting to observe that a
national KamiTen…zio…dai…zinis worshipped as a sort of
Jahveh by the nation in general； and （as Lippert has observed）
it is singular that his special seat is a portable litter…like
shrine； termed the Mikosi； in some sort analogous to the
Israelitic ark。 In China； the emperor is the representative of
the primitive ancestors； and stands； as it were； between them
and the supreme cosmic deitiesHeaven and Earthwho are
superadded to them； and who answer to the Tangaloa and the Maui
of the Polynesians。
Sciotheism； under the form of the deification of ancestral
ghosts； in its most pronounced form； is therefore the chief
element in the theology of a great moiety； possibly of more than
half； of the human race。 I think this must be taken to be a
matter of factthough various opinions may be held as to how
this ancestor…worship came about。 But on the other hand； it is
no less a matter of fact that there are very few people without
additional gods； who cannot； with certainty； be accounted for as
deified ancestors。
With all respect for the distinguished authorities on the other
side； I cannot find good reasons for accepting the theory that
the cosmic deitieswho are superadded to deified ancestors even
in China； who are found all over Polynesia； in Tangaloa and
Maui； and in old Peru；