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All the more remarkable； therefore； is the extraordinary change
which is to be noted in the eighth century B。C。 The student who
is familiar with the theology implied； or expressed； in the
books of Judges； Samuel； and the first book of Kings； finds
himself in a new world of thought； in the full tide of a great
reformation； when he reads Joel； Amos； Hosea； Isaiah； Micah；
and Jeremiah。
The essence of this change is the reversal of the position
which； in primitive society； ethics holds in relation to
theology。 Originally； that which men worship is a theological
hypothesis； not a moral ideal。 The prophets； in substance； if
not always in form preach the opposite doctrine。 They are
constantly striving to free the moral ideal from the stifling
embrace of the current theology and its concomitant ritual。
Theirs was not an intellectual criticism； argued on strictly
scientific grounds； the image…worshippers and the believers in
the efficacy of sacrifices and ceremonies might logically have
held their own against anything the prophets have to say； it was
an ethical criticism。 From the height of his moral intuition
that the whole duty of man is to do justice and to love mercy
and to bear himself as humbly as befits his insignificance in
face of the Infinitethe prophet simply laughs at the idolaters
of stocks and stones and the idolaters of ritual。 Idols of the
first kind； in his experience； were inseparably united with the
practice of immorality； and they were to be ruthlessly
destroyed。 As for sacrifices and ceremonies； whatever their
intrinsic value might be； they might be tolerated on condition
of ceasing to be idols； they might even be praiseworthy on
condition of being made to subserve the worship of the true
Jahvehthe moral ideal。
If the realm of David had remained undivided； if the Assyrian
and the Chaldean and the Egyptian had left Israel to the
ordinary course of development of an Oriental kingdom； it is
possible that the effects of the reforming zeal of the prophets
of the eighth and seventh centuries might have been effaced by
the growth； according to its inevitable tendencies； of the
theology which they combated。 But the captivity made the fortune
of the ideas which it was the privilege of these men to launch
upon an endless career。 With the abolition of the Temple…
services for more than half a century； the priest must have lost
and the scribe gained influence。 The puritanism of a vigorous
minority among the Babylonian Jews rooted out polytheism from
all its hiding…places in the theology which they had inherited；
they created the first consistent； remorseless； naked
monotheism； which； so far as history records； appeared in the
world （for Zoroastrism is practically ditheism； and Buddhism
any…theism or no…theism）； and they inseparably united therewith
an ethical code； which； for its purity and for its efficiency as
a bond of social life； was and is； unsurpassed。 So I think we
must not judge Ezra and Nehemiah and their followers too hardly；
if they exemplified the usual doom of poor humanity to escape
from one error only to fall into another； if they failed to free
themselves as completely from the idolatry of ritual as they had
from that of images and dogmas； if they cherished the new
fetters of the Levitical legislation which they had fitted upon
themselves and their nation； as though such bonds had the
sanctity of the obligations of morality； and if they led
succeeding generations to spend their best energies in building
that 〃hedge round the Torah〃 which was meant to preserve both
ethics and theology； but which too often had the effect of
pampering the latter and starving the former。 The world being
what it was； it is to be doubted whether Israel would have
preserved intact the pure ore of religion； which the prophets
had extracted for the use of mankind as well as for their
nation； had not the leaders of the nation been zealous； even to
death； for the dross of the law in which it was embedded。
The struggle of the Jews； under the Maccabean house； against the
Seleucidae was as important for mankind as that of the Greeks
against the Persians。 And； of all the strange ironies of
history； perhaps the strangest is that 〃Pharisee〃 is current； as
a term of reproach； among the theological descendants of that
sect of Nazarenes who； without the martyr spirit of those
primitive Puritans； would never have come into existence。
They； like their historical successors； our own Puritans； have
shared the general fate of the poor wise men who save cities。
A criticism of theology from the side of science is not thought
of by the prophets； and is at most indicated in the books of Job
and Ecclesiastes； in both of which the problem of vindicating
the ways of God to man is given up； though on different grounds；
as a hopeless one。 But with the extensive introduction of Greek
thought among the Jews； which took place； not only during the
domination of the Seleucidae in Palestine； but in the great
Judaic colony which flourished in Egypt under the Ptolemies；
criticism； on both ethical and scientific grounds； took a
new departure。
In the hands of the Alexandrian Jews； as represented by Philo；
the fundamental axiom of later Jewish； as of Christian
monotheism； that the Deity is infinitely perfect and infinitely
good； worked itself out into its logical consequenceagnostic
theism。 Philo will allow of no point of contact between God and
a world in which evil exists。 For him God has no relation to
space or to time； and； as infinite； suffers no predicate beyond
that of existence。 It is therefore absurd to ascribe to Him
mental faculties and affections comparable in the remotest
degree to those of men； He is in no way an object of cognition；
He is ＇Greek＇ and ＇Greek＇without quality and
incomprehensible。 That is to say the Alexandrian Jew of the
first century had anticipated the reasonings of Hamilton and
Mansell in the nineteenth； and； for him； God is the Unknowable
in the sense in which that term is used by Mr。 Herbert Spencer。
Moreover； Philo's definition of the Supreme Being would not be
inconsistent with that 〃substantia constans infinitis
attributis； quorum unumquodque aeternam et infinitam essentiam
exprimit；〃 given by another great Israelite； were it not that
Spinoza's doctrine of the immanence of the Deity in the world
puts him； at any rate formally； at the antipodes of theological
speculation。 But the conception of the essential
incognoscibility of the Deity is the same in each case。
However； Philo was too thorough an Israelite and too much the
child of his time to be content with this agnostic position。
With the help of the Platonic and Stoic philosophy； he
constructed an apprehensible； if not comprehensible； quasi…deity
out of the Logos； while other more or less personified divine
powers； or attributes； bridged over the interval between God and
man； between the sacred existence； too pure to be called by any
name which implied a conceivable quality； and the gross and evil
world of matter。 In order to get over the ethical difficulties
presented by the naive naturalism of many parts of those
Scriptures； in the divine authority of which he firmly believed；
Philo borrowed from the Stoics （who had been in like straits in
respect of Greek mythology）； that great Excalibur which they had
forged with infinite pains and skillthe method of allegorical
interpretation。 This mighty 〃two…handed engine at the door〃 of
the theologian is warranted to make a speedy end of any and
every moral or intellectual difficulty； by showing that； taken
allegorically or； as it is otherwise said； 〃poetically〃 or； 〃in
a spiritual sense；〃 the plainest words mean whatever a pious
interpreter desires they should mean。 In Biblical phrase； Zeno
（who probably had a strain of Semitic blood in him） was the
〃father of all such as reconcile。〃 No doubt Philo and his
followers were eminently religious men； but they did endless
injury to the cause of religion by laying the foundations of a
new theology； while equipping the defenders of it with the
subtlest of all weapons of offence and defence； and with an
inexhaustible store of sophistical arguments of the most
plausible aspect。
The question of the real bearing upon theology of the influence
exerted by the teaching of Philo's contemporary； Jesus of
Nazareth； is one upon which it is not germane to my present
purpose to enter。 I take it simply as an unquestionable fact
that his immediate disciples； known to their countrymen as
〃Nazarenes；〃 were regarded as； and considered themselves to be；
perfectly orthodox Jews； belonging to the puritanic or pharisaic
section of their people； and differing from the rest only in
their belief that the Messiah had already come。 Christianity； it
is said； first became clearly differentiated at Antioch； and it
separated itself from orthodox Judaism by denying the obligat