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separated itself from orthodox Judaism by denying the obligation
of the rite of circumcision and of the food prohibitions；
prescribed by the law。 Henceforward theology became relatively
stationary among the Jews； and the history of its rapid
progress in a new course of evolution is the history of the
Christian Churches； orthodox and heterodox。 The steps in this
evolution are obvious。 The first is the birth of a new
theological scheme arising out of the union of elements derived
from Greek philosophy with elements derived from Israelitic
theology。 In the fourth Gospel； the Logos； raised to a somewhat
higher degree of personification than in the Alexandrian
theosophy； is identified with Jesus of Nazareth。 In the
Epistles； especially the later of those attributed to Paul； the
Israelitic ideas of the Messiah and of sacrificial atonement
coalesce with one another and with the embodiment of the Logos
in Jesus； until the apotheosis of the Son of man is almost； or
quite； effected。 The history of Christian dogma； from Justin to
Athanasius； is a record of continual progress in the same
direction； until the fair body of religion； revealed in almost
naked purity by the prophets； is once more hidden under a new
accumulation of dogmas and of ritual practices of which the
primitive Nazarene knew nothing； and which he would probably
have regarded as blasphemous if he could have been made to
understand them。
As； century after century； the ages roll on； polytheism comes
back under the disguise of Mariolatry and the adoration of
saints； image…worship becomes as rampant as in old Egypt；
adoration of relics takes the place of the old fetish…worship；
the virtues of the ephod pale before those of holy coats and
handkerchiefs； shrines and calvaries make up for the loss of the
ark and of the high places； and even the lustral fluid of
paganism is replaced by holy water at the porches of the
temples。 A touching ceremonythe common meal originally eaten
in pious memory of a loved teacherbecomes metamorphosed into a
flesh…and…blood sacrifice； supposed to possess exactly that
redeeming virtue which the prophets denied to the flesh…and…
blood sacrifices of their day； while the minute observance of
ritual is raised to a degree of punctilious refinement which
Levitical legislators might envy。 And with the growth of this
theology； grew its inevitable concomitant； the belief in evil
spirits； in possession； in sorcery； in charms and omens； until
the Christians of the twelfth century after our era were sunk in
more debased and brutal superstitions than are recorded of the
Israelites in the twelfth century before it。
The greatest men of the Middle Ages are unable to escape the
infection。 Dante's 〃Inferno〃 would be revolting if it were not
so often sublime； so often exquisitely tender。 The hideous
pictures which cover a vast space on the south wall of the Campo
Santo of Pisa convey information； as terrible as it is
indisputable； of the theological conceptions of Dante's
countrymen in the fourteenth century； whose eyes were addressed
by the painters of those disgusting scenes； and whose
approbation they knew how to win。 A candid Mexican of the time
of Cortez； could he have seen this Christian burial…place； would
have taken it for an appropriately adorned Teocalli。
The professed disciple of the God of justice and of mercy might
there gloat over the sufferings of his fellowmen depicted as
undergoing every extremity of atrocious and sanguinary torture
to all eternity； for theological errors no less than for moral
delinquencies； while； in the central figure of Satan；
occupied in champing up souls in his capacious and well…toothed
jaws； to void them again for the purpose of undergoing fresh
suffering； we have the counterpart of the strange Polynesian and
Egyptian dogma that there were certain gods who employed
themselves in devouring the ghostly flesh of the Spirits of the
dead。 But in justice to the Polynesians； it must be recollected
that； after three such operations； they thought the soul was
purified and happy。 In the view of the Christian theologian the
operation was only a preparation for new tortures continued for
ever and aye。
With the growth of civilisation in Europe； and with the revival
of letters and of science in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries； the ethical and intellectual criticism of theology
once more recommenced； and arrived at a temporary resting…place
in the confessions of the various reformed Protestant sects in
the sixteenth century； almost all of which； as soon as they were
strong enough； began to persecute those who carried criticism
beyond their own limit。 But the movement was not arrested by
these ecclesiastical barriers； as their constructors fondly
imagined it would be； it was continued； tacitly or openly； by
Galileo； by Hobbes； by Descartes； and especially by Spinoza； in
the seventeenth century； by the English Freethinkers； by
Rousseau； by the French Encyclopaedists； and by the German
Rationalists； among whom Lessing stands out a head and shoulders
taller than the rest； throughout the eighteenth century； by the
historians； the philologers； the Biblical critics； the
geologists； and the biologists in the nineteenth century； until
it is obvious to all who can see that the moral sense and the
really scientific method of seeking for truth are once more
predominating over false science。 Once more ethics and theology
are parting company。
It is my conviction that； with the spread of true scientific
culture； whatever may be the medium； historical； philological；
philosophical； or physical； through which that culture is
conveyed； and with its necessary concomitant； a constant
elevation of the standard of veracity； the end of the evolution
of theology will be like its beginningit will cease to have
any relation to ethics。 I suppose that； so long as the human
mind exists； it will not escape its deep…seated instinct to
personify its intellectual conceptions。 The science of the
present day is as full of this particular form of intellectual
shadow…worship as is the nescience of ignorant ages。
The difference is that the philosopher who is worthy of the name
knows that his personified hypotheses； such as law； and force；
and ether； and the like； are merely useful symbols； while the
ignorant and the careless take them for adequate expressions of
reality。 So； it may be； that the majority of mankind may find
the practice of morality made easier by the use of theological
symbols。 And unless these are converted from symbols into idols；
I do not see that science has anything to say to the practice；
except to give an occasional warning of its dangers。 But； when
such symbols are dealt with as real existences； I think the
highest duty which is laid upon men of science is to show that
these dogmatic idols have no greater value than the fabrications
of men's hands； the stocks and the stones； which they
have replaced。
FOOTNOTES
（1） Even the most sturdy believers in the popular theory that
the proper or titular names attached to the books of the Bible
are those of their authors will hardly be prepared to maintain
that Jephthah； Gideon； and their colleagues wrote the book of
Judges。 Nor is it easily admissible that Samuel wrote the two
books which pass under his name； one of which deals entirely
with events which took place after his death。 In fact； no one
knows who wrote either Judges or Samuel； nor when； within the
range of 100 years； their present form was given to these books。
（2） My citations are taken from the Revised Version； but for
Lord and God I have substituted Jahveh and Elohim。
（3） I need hardly say that I depend upon authoritative Biblical
critics； whenever a question of interpretation of the text
arises。 As Reuss appears to me to be one of the most learned；
acute； and fair…minded of those whose works I have studied； I
have made most use of the commentary and dissertations in his
splendid French edition of the Bible。 But I have also had
recourse to the works of Dillman； Kalisch； Kuenen； Thenius；
Tuch； and others； in cases in which another opinion
seemed desirable。
（4） See 〃Divination；〃 by Hazoral； Journal of
Anthropology； Bombay； vol。 i。 No。 1。
（5） See； for example； the message of Jephthah to the King of the
Ammonites： 〃So now Jahveh； the Elohim of Israel； hath
dispossessed the Amorites from before his people Israel； and
shouldest thou possess them？ Wilt not thou possess that which
Chemosh； thy Elohim； giveth thee to possess？〃 （Jud。 xi。 23； 24）。
For Jephthah； Chemosh is obviously as real a personage
as Jahveh。
（6） For example： 〃My oblation； my food for my offerings made by
fire； of a sweet savour to me； shall ye observe to offer unto me
in their due season〃 （Num。 xxviii。 2）。
（7） In 2 Samuel xv。 27 David says to Zadok the priest； 〃Art thou
not a seer？〃 and G