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been destroyed or are daily being destroyed。 They are dislodged
by new industries； whose introduction becomes a life and death
question for all civilised nations； by industries that no longer
work up indigenous raw material； but raw material drawn from the
remotest zones； industries whose products are consumed； not only
at home； but in every quarter of the globe。 In place of the old
wants； satisfied by the productions of the country； we find new
wants； requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant
lands and climes。 In place of the old local and national
seclusion and self…sufficiency； we have intercourse in every
direction； universal inter…dependence of nations。 And as in
material； so also in intellectual production。 The intellectual
creations of individual nations become common property。 National
one…sidedness and narrow…mindedness become more and more
impossible； and from the numerous national and local literatures；
there arises a world literature。
The bourgeoisie； by the rapid improvement of all instruments of
production； by the immensely facilitated means of communication；
draws all； even the most barbarian； nations into civilisation。
The cheap prices of its commodities are the heavy artillery with
which it batters down all Chinese walls； with which it forces the
barbarians' intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to
capitulate。 It compels all nations； on pain of extinction； to
adopt the bourgeois mode of production； it compels them to
introduce what it calls civilisation into their midst； i。e。； to
become bourgeois themselves。 In one word； it creates a world
after its own image。
The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule of the
towns。 It has created enormous cities； has greatly increased the
urban population as compared with the rural； and has thus rescued
a considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rural
life。 Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns； so
it has made barbarian and semi…barbarian countries dependent on
the civilised ones； nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois；
the East on the West。
The bourgeoisie keeps more and more doing away with the
scattered state of the population； of the means of production；
and of property。 It has agglomerated production； and has
concentrated property in a few hands。 The necessary consequence
of this was political centralisation。 Independent； or but
loosely connected provinces； with separate interests； laws；
governments and systems of taxation； became lumped together into
one nation； with one government； one code of laws； one national
class…interest； one frontier and one customs…tariff。 The
bourgeoisie； during its rule of scarce one hundred years； has
created more massive and more colossal productive forces than
have all preceding generations together。 Subjection of Nature's
forces to man； machinery； application of chemistry to industry
and agriculture； steam…navigation； railways； electric telegraphs；
clearing of whole continents for cultivation； canalisation of
rivers； whole populations conjured out of the ground what
earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive
forces slumbered in the lap of social labour？
We see then： the means of production and of exchange； on whose
foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up； were generated in
feudal society。 At a certain stage in the development of these
means of production and of exchange； the conditions under which
feudal society produced and exchanged； the feudal organisation of
agriculture and manufacturing industry； in one word； the feudal
relations of property became no longer compatible with the
already developed productive forces； they became so many fetters。
They had to be burst asunder； they were burst asunder。
Into their place stepped free competition； accompanied by a
social and political constitution adapted to it； and by the
economical and political sway of the bourgeois class。
A similar movement is going on before our own eyes。 Modern
bourgeois society with its relations of production； of exchange
and of property； a society that has conjured up such gigantic
means of production and of exchange； is like the sorcerer； who is
no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he
has called up by his spells。 For many a decade past the history
of industry and commerce is but the history of the revolt of
modern productive forces against modern conditions of production；
against the property relations that are the conditions for the
existence of the bourgeoisie and of its rule。 It is enough to
mention the commercial crises that by their periodical return put
on its trial； each time more threateningly； the existence of the
entire bourgeois society。 In these crises a great part not only
of the existing products； but also of the previously created
productive forces； are periodically destroyed。 In these crises
there breaks out an epidemic that； in all earlier epochs； would
have seemed an absurdity the epidemic of over…production。
Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary
barbarism； it appears as if a famine； a universal war of
devastation had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence；
industry and commerce seem to be destroyed； and why？ Because
there is too much civilisation； too much means of subsistence；
too much industry； too much commerce。 The productive forces at
the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development
of the conditions of bourgeois property； on the contrary； they
have become too powerful for these conditions； by which they are
fettered； and so soon as they overcome these fetters； they bring
disorder into the whole of bourgeois society； endanger the
existence of bourgeois property。 The conditions of bourgeois
society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them。
And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises？ On the one
hand inforced destruction of a mass of productive forces； on the
other； by the conquest of new markets； and by the more thorough
exploitation of the old ones。 That is to say； by paving the way
for more extensive and more destructive crises； and by
diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented。
The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the
ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself。
But not only has the bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring
death to itself； it has also called into existence the men who
are to wield those weapons the modern working class the
proletarians。
In proportion as the bourgeoisie； i。e。； capital； is developed；
in the same proportion is the proletariat； the modern working
class； developed a class of labourers； who live only so long
as they find work； and who find work only so long as their labour
increases capital。 These labourers； who must sell themselves
piece…meal； are a commodity； like every other article of
commerce； and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of
competition； to all the fluctuations of the market。
Owing to the extensive use of machinery and to division of
labour； the work of the proletarians has lost all individual
character； and consequently； all charm for the workman。 He
becomes an appendage of the machine； and it is only the most
simple； most monotonous； and most easily acquired knack； that is
required of him。 Hence； the cost of production of a workman is
restricted； almost entirely； to the means of subsistence that he
requires for his maintenance； and for the propagation of his
race。 But the price of a commodity； and therefore also of
labour； is equal to its cost of production。 In proportion
therefore； as the repulsiveness of the work increases； the wage
decreases。 Nay more； in proportion as the use of machinery and
division of labour increases； in the same proportion the burden
of toil also increases； whether by prolongation of the working
hours； by increase of the work exacted in a given time or by
increased speed of the machinery； etc。
Modern industry has converted the little workshop of the
patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial
capitalist。 Masses of labourers； crowded into the factory； are
organised like soldiers。 As privates of the industrial army they
are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers
and sergeants。 Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class；
and of the bourgeois State； they are daily and hourly enslaved by
the machine； by the over…looker； and； above all； by the
individual bourgeois manufacturer himself。 The more openly this
despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim； the more petty；
the more hateful and the more embittering it is。
The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual
labour； in other words； the more modern industry becomes
developed；
the more is the labour of men superseded by that of w