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for his old age； he was overthrown at the very beginning of his
administration。 And here it should be noted that hatred is acquired as
much by good works as by bad ones； therefore； as I said before； a prince
wishing to keep his state is very often forced to do evil； for when that
body is corrupt whom you think you have need of to maintain yourself
it may be either the people or the soldiers or the nobles you have to
submit to its humours and to gratify them； and then good works will do
you harm。
But let us e to Alexander； who was a man of such great goodness； that
among the other praises which are accorded him is this； that in the
fourteen years he held the empire no one was ever put to death by him
unjudged； nevertheless； being considered effeminate and a man who
allowed himself to be governed by his mother； he became despised； the
army conspired against him； and murdered him。
Turning now to the opposite characters of modus； Severus； Antoninus
Caracalla； and Maximinus； you will find them all cruel and rapacious
men who； to satisfy their soldiers； did not hesitate to mit every
kind of iniquity against the people； and all； except Severus； came to a
bad end； but in Severus there was so much valour that； keeping the
soldiers friendly； although the people were oppressed by him； he reigned
successfully； for his valour made him so much admired in the sight of
the soldiers and people that the latter were kept in a way astonished
and awed and the former respectful and satisfied。 And because the
actions of this man； as a new prince； were great； I wish to show briefly
that he knew well how to counterfeit the fox and the lion； which
natures； as I said above； it is necessary for a prince to imitate。
Knowing the sloth of the Emperor Julian； he persuaded the army in
Sclavonia； of which he was captain； that it would be right to go to Rome
and avenge the death of Pertinax； who had been killed by the praetorian
soldiers； and under this pretext； without appearing to aspire to the
throne； he moved the army on Rome； and reached Italy before it was known
that he had started。 On his arrival at Rome； the Senate； through fear；
elected him emperor and killed Julian。 After this there remained for
Severus； who wished to make himself master of the whole empire； two
difficulties； one in Asia； where Niger； head of the Asiatic army； had
caused himself to be proclaimed emperor； the other in the west where
Albinus was； who also aspired to the throne。 And as he considered it
dangerous to declare himself hostile to both； he decided to attack Niger
and to deceive Albinus。 To the latter he wrote that； being elected
emperor by the Senate； he was willing to share that dignity with him and
sent him the title of Caesar； and； moreover； that the Senate had made
Albinus his colleague； which things were accepted by Albinus as true。
But after Severus had conquered and killed Niger； and settled oriental
affairs； he returned to Rome and plained to the Senate that Albinus；
little recognizing the benefits that he had received from him； had by
treachery sought to murder him； and for this ingratitude he was
pelled to punish him。 Afterwards he sought him out in France； and
took from him his government and life。 He who will； therefore； carefully
examine the actions of this man will find him a most valiant lion and a
most cunning fox； he will find him feared and respected by every one；
and not hated by the army； and it need not be wondered at that he； the
new man； well； because his supreme renown always protected him from that
hatred which the people might have conceived against him for his
violence。
But his son Antoninus was a most eminent man； and had very excellent
qualities； which made him admirable in the sight of the people and
acceptable to the soldiers； for he was a warlike man； most enduring of
fatigue； a despiser of all delicate food and other luxuries； which
caused him to be beloved by the armies。 Nevertheless； his ferocity and
cruelties were so great and so unheard of that； after endless single
murders； he killed a large number of the people of Rome and all those of
Alexandria。 He became hated by the whole world； and also feared by those
he had around him； to such an extent that he was murdered in the midst
of his army by a centurion。 And here it must be noted that such…like
deaths； which are deliberately inflicted with a resolved and desperate
courage； cannot be avoided by princes； because any one who does not fear
to die can inflict them； but a prince may fear them the less because
they are very rare； he has only to be careful not to do any grave injury
to those whom he employs or has around him in the service of the state。
Antoninus had not taken this care； but had contumeliously killed a
brother of that centurion； whom also he daily threatened； yet retained
in his bodyguard； which； as it turned out； was a rash thing to do； and
proved the emperor's ruin。
But let us e to modus； to whom it should have been very easy to
hold the empire； for； being the son of Marcus； he had inherited it； and
he had only to follow in the footsteps of his father to please his
people and soldiers； but； being by nature cruel and brutal； he gave
himself up to amusing the soldiers and corrupting them； so that he might
indulge his rapacity upon the people； on the other hand； not maintaining
his dignity； often descending to the theatre to pete with gladiators；
and doing other vile things； little worthy of the imperial majesty； he
fell into contempt with the soldiers； and being hated by one party and
despised by the other； he was conspired against and killed。
It remains to discuss the character of Maximinus。 He was a very warlike
man； and the armies； being disgusted with the effeminacy of Alexander；
of whom I have already spoken； killed him and elected Maximinus to the
throne。 This he did not possess for long； for two things made him hated
and despised； the one； his having kept sheep in Thrace； which brought
him into contempt （it being well known to all； and considered a great
indignity by every one）； and the other； his having at the accession to
his dominions deferred going to Rome and taking possession of the
imperial seat； he had also gained a reputation for the utmost ferocity
by having； through his prefects in Rome and elsewhere in the empire；
practised many cruelties； so that the whole world was moved to anger at
the meanness of his birth and to fear at his barbarity。 First Africa
rebelled； then the Senate with all the people of Rome； and all Italy
conspired against him； to which may be added his own army： this latter；
besieging Aquileia and meeting with difficulties in taking it； were
disgusted with his cruelties； and fearing him less when they found so
many against him； murdered him。
I do not wish to discuss Heliogabalus； Macrinus； or Julian； who； being
thoroughly contemptible； were quickly wiped out； but I will bring this
discourse to a conclusion by saying that princes in our times have this
difficulty of giving inordinate satisfaction to their soldiers in a far
less degree； because； notwithstanding one has to give them some
indulgence； that is soon done； none of these princes have armies that
are veterans in the governance and administration of provinces； as were
the armies of the Roman Empire； and whereas it was then more necessary
to give satisfaction to the soldiers than to the people； it is now more
necessary to all princes； except the Turk and the Soldan； to satisfy the
people rather than the soldiers； because the people are the more
powerful。
From the above I have excepted the Turk； who always keeps round him
twelve infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry on which depend the
security and strength of the kingdom； and it is necessary that； putting
aside every consideration for the people； he should keep them his
friends。 The kingdom of the Soldan is similar； being entirely in the
hands of soldiers； follows again that； without regard to the people； he
must keep them his friends。 But you must note that the state of the
Soldan is unlike all other principalities； for the reason that it is
like the Christian pontificate； which cannot be called either an
hereditary or a newly formed principality； because the sons of the old
prince not the heirs； but he who is elected to that position by those
who have authority； and the sons remain only noblemen。 And this being an
ancient custom； it cannot be called a new principality； because there
are none of those difficulties in it that are met with in new ones； for
although the prince is new； the constitution of the state is old； and it
is framed so as to receive him as if he were its hereditary lord。
But returning to the subject of our discourse； I say that whoever will
consider it will acknowledge that either hatred or contempt has been
fatal to the above…named emperors； and it will be recognized also how it
happened that； a number of