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gon and peddled through the country。 Later his establishment grew large。 Another John Lane； a son of the first； patented in 1868 a 〃soft…center〃 steel plough。 The hard but brittle surface was backed by softer and more tenacious metal； to reduce the breakage。 The same year James Oliver； a Scotch immigrant who had settled at South Bend； Indiana； received a patent for the 〃chilled plough。〃 By an ingenious method the wearing surfaces of the casting were cooled more quickly than the back。 The surfaces which came in contact with the soil had a hard； glassy surface； while the body of the plough was of tough iron。 From small beginnings Oliver's establishment grew great； and the Oliver Chilled Plow Works at South Bend is today one of the largest and most favorably known privately owned industries in the United States。
From the single plough it was only a step to two or more ploughs fastened together； doing more work with approximately the same man power。 The sulky plough； on which the ploughman rode； made his work easier； and gave him great control。 Such ploughs were certainly in use as early as 1844； perhaps earlier。 The next step forward was to substitute for horses a traction engine。 Today one may see on thousands of farms a tractor pulling six； eight； ten； or more ploughs； doing the work better than it could be done by an individual ploughman。 On the 〃Bonanza〃 farms of the West a fifty horsepower engine draws sixteen ploughs； followed by harrows and a grain drill； and performs the three operations of ploughing； harrowing； and planting at the same time and covers fifty acres or more in a day。
The basic ideas in drills for small grains were successfully developed in Great Britain； and many British drills were sold in the United States before one was manufactured here。 American manufacture of these drills began about 1840。 Planters for corn came somewhat later。 Machines to plant wheat successfully were unsuited to corn； which must be planted less profusely than wheat。
The American pioneers had only a sickle or a scythe with which to cut their grain。 The addition to the scythe of wooden fingers； against which the grain might lie until the end of the swing； was a natural step； and seems to have been taken quite independently in several places； perhaps as early as 1803。 Grain cradles are still used in hilly regions and in those parts of the country where little grain is grown。
The first attempts to build a machine to cut grain were made in England and Scotland； several of them in the eighteenth century； and in 1822 Henry Ogle； a schoolmaster in Rennington； made a mechanical reaper； but the opposition of the laborers of the vicinity； who feared loss of employment； prevented further development。 In 1826； Patrick Bell； a young Scotch student； afterward a Presbyterian minister； who had been moved by the fatigue of the harvesters upon his father's farm in Argyllshire； made an attempt to lighten their labor。 His reaper was pushed by horses； a reel brought the grain against blades which opened and closed like scissors； and a traveling canvas apron deposited the grain at one side。 The inventor received a prize from the Highland and Agricultural Society of Edinburgh； and pictures and full descriptions of his invention were published。 Several models of this reaper were built in Great Britain； and it is said that four came to the United States； however this may be； Bell's machine was never generally adopted。
Soon afterward three men patented reapers in the United States： William Manning； Plainfield； New Jersey； 1831； Obed Hussey； Cincinnati； Ohio； 1833； and Cyrus Hall McCormick； Staunton； Virginia； 1834。 Just how much they owed to Patrick Bell cannot be known； but it is probable that all had heard of his design if they had not seen his drawings or the machine itself。 The first of these inventors； Manning of New Jersey； drops out of the story； for it is not known whether he ever made a machine other than his model。 More persistent was Obed Hussey of Cincinnati； who soon moved to Baltimore to fight out the issue with McCormick。 Hussey was an excellent mechanic。 He patented several improvements to his machine and received high praise for the efficiency of the work。 But he was soon outstripped in the race because he was weak in the essential qualities which made McCormick the greatest figure in the world of agricultural machinery。 McCormick was more than a mechanic； he was a man of vision； and he had the enthusiasm of a crusader and superb genius for business organization and advertisement。 His story has been told in another volume of this series。*
* 〃The Age of Big Business〃； by Burton J。 Hendrick。
Though McCormick offered reapers for sale in 1834； he seems to have sold none in that year； nor any for six years afterwards。 He sold two in 1840； seven in 1842； fifty in 1844。 The machine was not really adapted to the hills of the Valley of Virginia； and farmers hesitated to buy a contrivance which needed the attention of a skilled mechanic。 McCormick made a trip through the Middle West。 In the rolling prairies； mile after mile of rich soil without a tree or a stone； he saw his future dominion。 Hussey had moved East。 McCormick did the opposite； he moved West； to Chicago； in 1847。
Chicago was then a town of hardly ten thousand； but McCormick foresaw its future； built a factory there； and manufactured five hundred machines for the harvest of 1848。 From this time he went on from triumph to triumph。 He formulated an elaborate business system。 His machines were to be sold at a fixed price； payable in installments if desired； with a guarantee of satisfaction。 He set up a system of agencies to give instruction or to supply spare parts。 Advertising； chiefly by exhibitions and contests at fairs and other public gatherings； was another item of his programme。 All would have failed； of course； if he had not built good machines； but he did build good machines； and was not daunted by the Government's refusal in 1848 to renew his original patent。 He decided to make profits as a manufacturer rather than accept royalties as an inventor。
McCormick had many competitors； and some of them were in the field with improved devices ahead of him； but he always held his own； either by buying up the patent for a real improvement； or else by requiring his staff to invent something to do the same work。 Numerous new devices to improve the harvester were patented； but the most important was an automatic attachment to bind the sheaves with wire。 This was patented in 1872； and McCormick soon made it his own。 The harvester seemed complete。 One man drove the team； and the machine cut the grain； bound it in sheaves； and deposited them upon the ground。
Presently； however； complaints were heard of the wire tie。 When the wheat was threshed； bits of wire got into the straw； and were swallowed by the cattle； or else the bits of metal got among the wheat itself and gave out sparks in grinding； setting some mills on fire。 Two inventors； almost simultaneously； produced the remedy。 Marquis L。 Gorham； working for McCormick； and John F。 Appleby； whose invention was purchased by William Deering； one of McCormick's chief competitors； invented binders which used twine。 By 1880 the self…binding harvester was complete。 No distinctive improvement has been made since； except to add strength and simplification。 The machine now needed the services of only two men； one to drive and the other to shock the bundles； and could reap twenty acres or more a day； tie the grain into bundles of uniform size； and dump them in piles of five ready to be shocked。
Grain must be separated from the straw and chaff。 The Biblical threshing floor； on which oxen or horses trampled out the grain； was still common in Washington's time； though it had been largely succeeded by the flail。 In Great Britain several threshing machines were devised in the eighteenth century； but none was particularly successful。 They were stationary； and it was necessary to bring the sheaves to them。 The seventh patent issued by the United States； to Samuel Mulliken of Philadelphia； was for a threshing machine。 The portable horse…power treadmill； invented in 1830 by Hiram A。 and John A。 Pitts of Winthrop； Maine； was presently coupled with a thresher； or 〃separator；〃 and this outfit； with its men and horses； moving from farm to farm； soon became an autumn feature of every neighborhood。 The treadmill was later on succeededby the traction engine； and the apparatus now in common use is an engine which draws the greatly improved threshing machine from farm to farm； and when the destination is reached； furnishes the power to drive the thresher。 Many of these engines are adapted to the use of straw as fuel。
Another development was the combination harvester and thresher used on the larger farms of the West。 This machine does not cut the wheat close to the ground； but the cutter…bar； over twenty…five feet in length； takes off the heads。 The wheat is separated from the chaff and automatically weighed into sacks； which are dumped as fast as two expert sewers can work。 The motive power is a traction engine or else twenty to thirty horses； and seventy…five acres a day can be reaped and threshed。 Often another tractor pulling a dozen wagons follow