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scientific progress seems never to have abated。 He writes in October； 1787； to a friend in France； describing his experience with lightning conductors and referring to the work of David Rittenhouse； the celebrated astronomer of Philadelphia。 On the 31st of May in the following year he is writing to the Reverend John Lathrop of Boston：
〃I have long been impressed with the same sentiments you so well express； of the growing felicity of mankind； from the improvement in philosophy； morals； politics； and even the conveniences of common living； and the invention of new and useful utensils and instruments； so that I have sometimes wished it had been my destiny to be born two or three centuries hence。 For invention and improvement are prolific； and beget more of their kind。 The present progress is rapid。 Many of great importance； now unthought of； will； before that period； be produced。〃
Thus the old philosopher felt the thrill of dawn and knew that the day of great mechanical inventions was at hand。 He had read the meaning of the puffing of the young steam engine of James Watt and he had heard of a marvelous series of British inventions for spinning and weaving。 He saw that his own countrymen were astir； trying to substitute the power of steam for the strength of muscles and the fitful wind。 John Fitch on the Delaware and James Rumsey on the Potomac were already moving vessels by steam。 John Stevens of New York and Hoboken had set up a machine shop that was to mean much to mechanical progress in America。 Oliver Evans； a mechanical genius of Delaware； was dreaming of the application of high…pressure steam to both road and water carriages。 Such manifestations； though still very faint； were to Franklin the signs of a new era。
And so； with vision undimmed； America's most famous citizen lived on until near the end of the first year of George Washington's administration。 On April 17； 1790； his unconquerable spirit took its flight。
In that year； 1790； was taken the First Census of the United States。 The new nation had a population of about four million people。 It then included practically the present territory east of the Mississippi； except the Floridas； which belonged to Spain。 But only a small part of this territory was occupied。 Much of New York and Pennsylvania was savage wilderness。 Only the seacoast of Maine was inhabited； and the eighty…two thousand inhabitants of Georgia hugged the Savannah River。 Hardy pioneers had climbed the Alleghanies into Kentucky and Tennessee； but the Northwest Territorycomprising Ohio； Michigan； Indiana； Illinois； and Wisconsinwas not enumerated at all； so scanty were its people； perhaps not more than four thousand。
Though the First Census did not classify the population by occupation it is certain that nine…tenths of the breadwinners worked more or less upon the soil。 The remaining tenth were engaged in trade； transportation； manufacturing； fishing and included also the professional men； doctors； lawyers； clergymen； teachers； and the like。 In other words； nine out of ten of the population were engaged primarily in the production of food； an occupation which today engages less than three out of ten。 This comparison； however； requires some qualification。 The farmer and the farmer's wife and children performed many tasks which are now done in factories。 The successful farmer on the frontier had to be a jack of many trades。 Often he tanned leather and made shoes for his family and harness for his horses。 He was carpenter； blacksmith； cobbler； and often boat…builder and fisherman as well。 His wife made soap and candles； spun yarn and dyed it； wove cloth and made the clothes the family wore； to mention only a few of the tasks of the women of the eighteenth century。
The organization of industry； however； was beginning。 Here and there were small paper mills； glass factories…though many houses in the back country were without glass windowspotteries； and iron foundries and forges。 Capitalists； in some places； had brought together a few handloom weavers to make cloth for sale； and the famous shoemakers of Massachusetts commonly worked in groups。
The mineral resources of the United States were practically unknown。 The country seems to have produced iron enough for its simple needs； some coal； copper； lead； gold； silver； and sulphur。 But we may say that mining was hardly practiced at all。
The fisheries and the shipyards were great sources of wealth； especially for New England。 The cod fishers numbered several hundred vessels and the whalers about forty。 Thousands of citizens living along the seashore and the rivers fished more or less to add to the local food supply。 The deep…sea fishermen exported a part of their catch； dried and salted。 Yankee vessels sailed to all ports of the world and carried the greater part of the foreign commerce of the United States。 Flour； tobacco； rice； wheat； corn； dried fish； potash； indigo； and staves were the principal exports。 Great Britain was the best customer； with the French West Indies next； and then the British West Indies。 The principal imports came from the same countries。 Imports and exports practically balanced each other； at about twenty million dollars annually； or about five dollars a head。 The great merchants owned ships and many of them； such as John Hancock of Boston； and Stephen Girard of Philadelphia； had grown very rich。
Inland transportation depended on horses and oxen or boats。 There were few good roads； sometimes none at all save bridle paths and trails。 The settlers along the river valleys used boats almost entirely。 Stage…coaches made the journey from New York to Boston in four days in summer and in six in winter。 Two days were required to go between New York and Philadelphia。 Forty to fifty miles a day was the speed of the best coaches； provided always that they did not tumble into the ditch。 In many parts of the country one must needs travel on horseback or on foot。
Even the wealthiest Americans of those days had few or none of the articles which we regard today as necessities of life。 The houses were provided with openwhich； however cheerful； did not keep them warmor else with Franklin's stoves。 To strike a fire one must have the flint and tinderbox； for matches were unknown until about 1830。 Candles made the darkness visible。 There was neither plumbing nor running water。 Food was cooked in the ashes or over an open fire。
The farmer's tools were no less crude than his wife's。 His plough had been little improved since the days of Rameses。 He sowed his wheat by hand； cut it with a sickle； flailed it out upon the floor； and laboriously winnowed away the chaff。
In that same year； 1790； came a great boon and encouragement to inventors； the first Federal Patent Act； passed by Congress on the 10th of April。 Every State had its own separate patent laws or regulations； as an inheritance from colonial days； but the Fathers of the Constitution had wisely provided that this function of government should be exercised by the nation。* The Patent Act； however； was for a time unpopular； and some States granted monopolies； particularly of transportation； until they were forbidden to do so by judicial decision。
* The Constitution （Article 1； Section 8； Clause 8） empowers Congress： 〃To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts； by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries。〃
The first Patent Act provided that an examining board； consisting of the Secretary of State； the Secretary of War； and the Attorney…General； or any two of them； might grant a patent for fourteen years； if they deemed the invention useful and important。 The patent itself was to be engrossed and signed by the President； the Secretary of State； and the Attorney…General。 And the cost was to be three dollars and seventy cents； plus the cost of copying the specifications at ten cents a sheet。
The first inventor to avail himself of the advantages of the new Patent Act was Samuel Hopkins of Vermont； who received a patent on the 31st of July for an improved method of 〃Making Pot and Pearl Ashes。〃 The world knows nothing of this Samuel Hopkins； but the potash industry； which was evidently on his mind； was quite important in his day。 Potash； that is； crude potassium carbonate； useful in making soap and in the manufacture of glass； was made by leaching wood ashes and boiling down the lye。 To produce a ton of potash； the trees on an acre of ground would be cut down and burned； the ashes leached； and the lye evaporated in great iron kettles。 A ton of potash was worth about twenty…five dollars。 Nothing could show more plainly the relative value of money and human labor in those early times。
Two more patents were issued during the year 1790。 The second went to Joseph S。 Sampson of Boston for a method of making candles； and the third to Oliver Evans； of whom we shall learn more presently； for an improvement in manufacturing flour and meal。 The fourth patent was granted in 1791 to Francis Baily of Philadelphia for making punches for types。 Next Aaron Putnam of Medford； Massachusetts； thought that he could improve methods of distilling； and John Stone of Concord； Massachusetts； offered a new method of drivi