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the same and so the terms can be treated as synonymous。 at least outside the classroom。
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5 THE STONE…BREAKERS
灏彛¤！txt！澶ｅ爞
at just the time that henry cavendish was pleting his experiments in london； fourhundred miles away in edinburgh another kind of concluding moment was about to take placewith the death of james hutton。 this was bad news for hutton； of course； but good news forscience as it cleared the way for a man named john playfair to rewrite hutton鈥檚 work withoutfear of embarrassment。
hutton was by all accounts a man of the keenest insights and liveliest conversation； a delightin pany； and without rival when it came to understanding the mysterious slow processesthat shaped the earth。 unfortunately； it was beyond him to set down his notions in a form thatanyone could begin to understand。 he was； as one biographer observed with an all but audiblesigh； 鈥渁lmost entirely innocent of rhetorical acplishments。鈥潯early every line he pennedwas an invitation to slumber。 here he is in his 1795 masterwork； a theory of the earth withproofs and illustrations ； discussing 。 。 。 something：
the world which we inhabit is posed of the materials； not of the earth whichwas the immediate predecessor of the present； but of the earth which； in ascendingfrom the present； we consider as the third； and which had preceded the land thatwas above the surface of the sea； while our present land was yet beneath the waterof the ocean。
yet almost singlehandedly； and quite brilliantly； he created the science of geology andtransformed our understanding of the earth。 hutton was born in 1726 into a prosperousscottish family； and enjoyed the sort of material fort that allowed him to pass much of hislife in a genially expansive round of light work and intellectual betterment。 he studiedmedicine； but found it not to his liking and turned instead to farming； which he followed in arelaxed and scientific way on the family estate in berwickshire。 tiring of field and flock； in1768 he moved to edinburgh； where he founded a successful business producing salammoniac from coal soot； and busied himself with various scientific pursuits。 edinburgh atthat time was a center of intellectual vigor； and hutton luxuriated in its enriching possibilities。
he became a leading member of a society called the oyster club； where he passed hisevenings in the pany of men such as the economist adam smith； the chemist josephblack； and the philosopher david hume； as well as such occasional visiting sparks asbenjamin franklin and james watt。
in the tradition of the day； hutton took an interest in nearly everything； from mineralogy tometaphysics。 he conducted experiments with chemicals； investigated methods of coal miningand canal building； toured salt mines； speculated on the mechanisms of heredity； collectedfossils； and propounded theories on rain； the position of air； and the laws of motion；among much else。 but his particular interest was geology。
among the questions that attracted interest in that fanatically inquisitive age was one thathad puzzled people for a very long time鈥攏amely； why ancient clamshells and other marinefossils were so often found on mountaintops。 how on earth did they get there？ those whothought they had a solution fell into two opposing camps。 one group； known as theneptunists； was convinced that everything on earth； including seashells in improbably lofty places； could be explained by rising and falling sea levels。 they believed that mountains；hills； and other features were as old as the earth itself； and were changed only when watersloshed over them during periods of global flooding。
opposing them were the plutonists； who noted that volcanoes and earthquakes； amongother enlivening agents； continually changed the face of the planet but clearly owed nothing towayward seas。 the plutonists also raised awkward questions about where all the water wentwhen it wasn鈥檛 in flood。 if there was enough of it at times to cover the alps； then where； pray；was it during times of tranquility； such as now？ their belief was that the earth was subject toprofound internal forces as well as surface ones。 however； they couldn鈥檛 convincingly explainhow all those clamshells got up there。
it was while puzzling over these matters that hutton had a series of exceptional insights。
from looking at his own farmland； he could see that soil was created by the erosion of rocksand that particles of this soil were continually washed away and carried off by streams andrivers and redeposited elsewhere。 he realized that if such a process were carried to its naturalconclusion then earth would eventually be worn quite smooth。 yet everywhere around himthere were hills。 clearly there had to be some additional process； some form of renewal anduplift； that created new hills and mountains to keep the cycle going。 the marine fossils onmountaintops； he decided； had not been deposited during floods； but had risen along with themountains themselves。 he also deduced that it was heat within the earth that created newrocks and continents and thrust up mountain chains。 it is not too much to say that geologistswouldn鈥檛 grasp the full implications of this thought for two hundred years； when finally theyadopted plate tectonics。 above all； what hutton鈥檚 theories suggested was that earth processesrequired huge amounts of time； far more than anyone had ever dreamed。 there were enoughinsights here to transform utterly our understanding of the earth。
in 1785； hutton worked his ideas up into a long paper； which was read at consecutivemeetings of the royal society of edinburgh。 it attracted almost no notice at all。 it鈥檚 not hardto see why。 here； in part； is how he presented it to his audience：
in the one case； the forming cause is in the body which is separated； for； after thebody has been actuated by heat； it is by the reaction of the proper matter of thebody； that the chasm which constitutes the vein is formed。 in the other case； again；the cause is extrinsic in relation to the body in which the chasm is formed。 therehas been the most violent fracture and divulsion； but the cause is still to seek； andit appears not in the vein； for it is not every fracture and dislocation of the solidbody of our earth； in which minerals； or the proper substances of mineral veins；are found。
needless to say； almost no one in the audience had the faintest idea what he was talkingabout。 encouraged by his friends to expand his theory； in the touching hope that he mightsomehow stumble onto clarity in a more expansive format； hutton spent the next ten yearspreparing his magnum opus； which was published in two volumes in 1795。
together the two books ran to nearly a thousand pages and were； remarkably； worse thaneven his most pessimistic friends had feared。 apart from anything else； nearly half the pleted work now consisted of quotations from french sources； still in the original french。
a third volume was so unenticing that it wasn鈥檛 published until 1899； more than a centuryafter hutton鈥檚 death； and the fourth and concluding volume was never published at all。
hutton鈥檚 theory of the earth is a strong candidate for the least read important book in science（or at least would be if there weren鈥檛 so many others）。 even charles lyell； the greatestgeologist of the following century and a man who read everything； admitted he couldn鈥檛 getthrough it。
luckily hutton had a boswell in the form of john playfair； a professor of mathematics atthe university of edinburgh and a close friend； who could not only write silken prose but鈥攖hanks to many years at hutton鈥檚 elbow鈥攁ctually understood what hutton was trying to say；most of the time。 in 1802； five years after hutton鈥檚 death； playfair produced a simplifiedexposition of the huttonian principles； entitled illustrations of the huttonian theory of theearth。 the book was gratefully received by those who took an active interest in geology；which in 1802 was not a large number。 that； however； was about to change。 and how。
in the winter of 1807； thirteen like…minded souls in london got together at the freemasonstavern at long acre； in covent garden； to form a dining club to be called the geologicalsociety。 the idea was to meet once a month to swap geological notions over a glass or two ofmadeira and a convivial dinner。 the price of the meal was set at a deliberately hefty fifteenshillings to discourage those whose qualifications were merely cerebral。 it soon becameapparent； however； that there was a demand for something more properly institutional； with apermanent headquarters； where people could gather to share and discuss new findings。 inbarely a decade membership grew to four hundred鈥攕till all gentlemen； of course鈥攁nd thegeological was threatening to eclipse the royal as the premier scientific society in thecountry。
the members met twice a month from november until june； when virtually all of themwent off to spend the summer doing fieldwork。 these weren鈥檛 people with a pecuniary interestin minerals； you understand； or even academics for the most part； but simply gentlemen withthe wealth and time to indulge a hobby at a more or less professional level。 by 1830； therewere 745 of them； and the world w