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energetic； and the most likely to compel reluctant attention to the
fragment of wisdom which they proclaim as if it were the whole。
Thus； in the eighteenth century； when nearly all the instructed； and
all those of the uninstructed who were led by them； were lost in
admiration of what is called civilisation； and of the marvels of
modern science； literature； and philosophy； and while greatly
overrating the amount of unlikeness between the men of modern and
those of ancient times； indulged the belief that the whole of the
difference was in their own favour； with what a salutary shock did the
paradoxes of Rousseau explode like bombshells in the midst；
dislocating the compact mass of one…sided opinion； and forcing its
elements to recombine in a better form and with additional
ingredients。 Not that the current opinions were on the whole farther
from the truth than Rousseau's were； on the contrary； they were nearer
to it； they contained more of positive truth； and very much less of
error。 Nevertheless there lay in Rousseau's doctrine； and has
floated down the stream of opinion along with it； a considerable
amount of exactly those truths which the popular opinion wanted； and
these are the deposit which was left behind when the flood subsided。
The superior worth of simplicity of life； the enervating and
demoralising effect of the trammels and hypocrisies of artificial
society； are ideas which have never been entirely absent from
cultivated minds since Rousseau wrote； and they will in time produce
their due effect； though at present needing to be asserted as much
as ever； and to be asserted by deeds； for words； on this subject； have
nearly exhausted their power。
In politics； again； it is almost a commonplace； that a party of
order or stability； and a party of progress or reform； are both
necessary elements of a healthy state of political life； until the one
or the other shall have so enlarged its mental grasp as to be a
party equally of order and of progress； knowing and distinguishing
what is fit to be preserved from what ought to be swept away。 Each
of these modes of thinking derives its utility from the deficiencies
of the other； but it is in a great measure the opposition of the other
that keeps each within the limits of reason and sanity。 Unless
opinions favourable to democracy and to aristocracy； to property and
to equality； to cooperation and to competition； to luxury and to
abstinence； to sociality and individuality； to liberty and discipline；
and all the other standing antagonisms of practical life； are
expressed with equal freedom； and enforced and defended with equal
talent and energy； there is no chance of both elements obtaining their
due； one scale is sure to go up； and the other down。 Truth； in the
great practical concerns of life； is so much a question of the
reconciling and combining of opposites； that very few have minds
sufficiently capacious and impartial to make the adjustment with an
approach to correctness； and it has to be made by the rough process of
a struggle between combatants fighting under hostile banners。 On any
of the great open questions just enumerated； if either of the two
opinions has a better claim than the other； not merely to be
tolerated； but to be encouraged and countenanced； it is the one
which happens at the particular time and place to be in a minority。
That is the opinion which； for the time being； represents the
neglected interests； the side of human well…being which is in danger
of obtaining less than its share。 I am aware that there is not； in
this country； any intolerance of differences of opinion on most of
these topics。 They are adduced to show； by admitted and multiplied
examples； the universality of the fact； that only through diversity of
opinion is there； in the existing state of human intellect； a chance
of fair play to all sides of the truth。 When there are persons to be
found who form an exception to the apparent unanimity of the world
on any subject； even if the world is in the right； it is always
probable that dissentients have something worth hearing to say for
themselves； and that truth would lose something by their silence。
It may be objected； 〃But some received principles； especially on the
highest and most vital subjects； are more than half…truths。 The
Christian morality； for instance； is the whole truth on that
subject； and if any one teaches a morality which varies from it； he is
wholly in error。〃 As this is of all cases the most important in
practice； none can be fitter to test the general maxim。 But before
pronouncing what Christian morality is or is not； it would be
desirable to decide what is meant by Christian morality。 If it means
the morality of the New Testament； I wonder that any one who derives
his knowledge of this from the book itself； can suppose that it was
announced； or intended； as a complete doctrine of morals。 The Gospel
always refers to a pre…existing morality； and confines its precepts to
the particulars in which that morality was to be corrected； or
superseded by a wider and higher； expressing itself； moreover； in
terms most general； often impossible to be interpreted literally；
and possessing rather the impressiveness of poetry or eloquence than
the precision of legislation。 To extract from it a body of ethical
doctrine； has never been possible without eking it out from the Old
Testament； that is； from a system elaborate indeed； but in many
respects barbarous； and intended only for a barbarous people。 St。
Paul； a declared enemy to this Judaical mode of interpreting the
doctrine and filling up the scheme of his Master； equally assumes a
preexisting morality； namely that of the Greeks and Romans； and his
advice to Christians is in a great measure a system of accommodation
to that； even to the extent of giving an apparent sanction to slavery。
What is called Christian； but should rather be termed theological；
morality； was not the work of Christ or the Apostles； but is of much
later origin； having been gradually built up by the Catholic church of
the first five centuries； and though not implicitly adopted by moderns
and Protestants； has been much less modified by them than might have
been expected。 For the most part； indeed； they have contented
themselves with cutting off the additions which had been made to it in
the Middle Ages； each sect supplying the place by fresh additions；
adapted to its own character and tendencies。
That mankind owe a great debt to this morality； and to its early
teachers； I should be the last person to deny； but I do not scruple to
say of it that it is； in many important points； incomplete and
one…sided； and that unless ideas and feelings； not sanctioned by it；
had contributed to the formation of European life and character； human
affairs would have been in a worse condition than they now are。
Christian morality （so called） has all the characters of a reaction；
it is； in great part； a protest against Paganism。 Its ideal is
negative rather than positive； passive rather than active； Innocence
rather than Nobleness； Abstinence from Evil； rather than energetic
Pursuit of Good； in its precepts （as has been well said） 〃thou shalt
not〃 predominates unduly over 〃thou shalt。〃 In its horror of
sensuality； it made an idol of asceticism； which has been gradually
compromised away into one of legality。 It holds out the hope of heaven
and the threat of hell； as the appointed and appropriate motives to
a virtuous life： in this falling far below the best of the ancients；
and doing what lies in it to give to human morality an essentially
selfish character； by disconnecting each man's feelings of duty from
the interests of his fellow creatures； except so far as a
self…interested inducement is offered to him for consulting them。 It
is essentially a doctrine of passive obedience； it inculcates
submission to all authorities found established； who indeed are not to
be actively obeyed when they command what religion forbids； but who
are not to be resisted； far less rebelled against； for any amount of
wrong to ourselves。 And while； in the morality of the best Pagan
nations； duty to the State holds even a disproportionate place；
infringing on the just liberty of the individual； in purely
Christian ethics； that grand department of duty is scarcely noticed or
acknowledged。 It is in the Koran； not the New Testament； that we
read the maxim… 〃A ruler who appoints any man to an office； when
there is in his dominions another man better qualified for it； sins
against God and against the State。〃 What little recognition the idea
of obligation to the public obtains in modern morality is derived from
Greek and Roman sources； not