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adequate grounds； conscientiously to stamp the misrepresentation as
morally culpable； and still less could law presume to interfere with
this kind of controversial misconduct。 With regard to what is commonly
meant by intemperate discussion； namely invective； sarcasm；
personality； and the like； the denunciation of these weapons would
deserve more sympathy if it were ever proposed to interdict them
equally to both sides； but it is only desired to restrain the
employment of them against the prevailing opinion： against the
unprevailing they may not only be used without general disapproval；
but will be likely to obtain for him who uses them the praise of
honest zeal and righteous indignation。 Yet whatever mischief arises
from their use is greatest when they are employed against the
comparatively defenceless； and whatever unfair advantage can be
derived by any opinion from this mode of asserting it； accrues
almost exclusively to received opinions。 The worst offence of this
kind which can be committed by a polemic is to stigmatise those who
hold the contrary opinion as bad and immoral men。 To calumny of this
sort； those who hold any unpopular opinion are peculiarly exposed；
because they are in general few and uninfluential； and nobody but
themselves feels much interested in seeing justice done them； but this
weapon is； from the nature of the case； denied to those who attack a
prevailing opinion： they can neither use it with safety to themselves；
nor； if they could； would it do anything but recoil on their own
cause。 In general； opinions contrary to those commonly received can
only obtain a hearing by studied moderation of language； and the
most cautious avoidance of unnecessary offence； from which they hardly
ever deviate even in a slight degree without losing ground： while
unmeasured vituperation employed on the side of the prevailing opinion
really does deter people from professing contrary opinions； and from
listening to those who profess them。
For the interest； therefore； of truth and justice； it is far more
important to restrain this employment of vituperative language than
the other； and； for example； if it were necessary to choose； there
would be much more need to discourage offensive attacks on
infidelity than on religion。 It is； however； obvious that law and
authority have no business with restraining either； while opinion
ought； in every instance； to determine its verdict by the
circumstances of the individual case； condemning every one； on
whichever side of the argument he places himself； in whose mode of
advocacy either want of candour； or malignity； bigotry； or intolerance
of feeling manifest themselves； but not inferring these vices from the
side which a person takes； though it be the contrary side of the
question to our own； and giving merited honour to every one；
whatever opinion he may hold； who has calmness to see and honesty to
state what his opponents and their opinions really are； exaggerating
nothing to their discredit； keeping nothing back which tells； or can
be supposed to tell； in their favour。 This is the real morality of
public discussion： and if often violated； I am happy to think that
there are many controversialists who to a great extent observe it； and
a still greater number who conscientiously strive towards it。
Chapter 3。
Of Individuality； as one of the Elements of Well…being。
SUCH BEING the reasons which make it imperative that human beings
should be free to form opinions； and to express their opinions without
reserve； and such the baneful consequences to the intellectual； and
through that to the moral nature of man； unless this liberty is either
conceded； or asserted in spite of prohibition； let us next examine
whether the same reasons do not require that men should be free to act
upon their opinions… to carry these out in their lives； without
hindrance； either physical or moral； from their fellow…men； so long as
it is at their own risk and peril。
This last proviso is of course indispensable。 No one pretends that
actions should be as free as opinions。 On the contrary； even
opinions lose their immunity when the circumstances in which they
are expressed are such as to constitute their expression a positive
instigation to some mischievous act。 An opinion that corn…dealers
are starvers of the poor； or that private property is robbery； ought
to be unmolested when simply circulated through the press； but may
justly incur punishment when delivered orally to an excited mob
assembled before the house of a corn…dealer； or when handed about
among the same mob in the form of a placard。 Acts； of whatever kind；
which； without justifiable cause； do harm to others； may be； and in
the more important cases absolutely require to be； controlled by the
unfavourable sentiments； and； when needful； by the active interference
of mankind。 The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited； he
must not make himself a nuisance to other people。 But if he refrains
from molesting others in what concerns them； and merely acts according
to his own inclination and judgment in things which concern himself；
the same reasons which show that opinion should be free； prove also
that he should be allowed； without molestation； to carry his
opinions into practice at his own cost。 That mankind are not
infallible； that their truths； for the most part； are only
half…truths； that unity of opinion； unless resulting from the
fullest and freest comparison of opposite opinions； is not
desirable； and diversity not an evil； but a good； until mankind are
much more capable than at present of recognising all sides of the
truth； are principles applicable to men's modes of action； not less
than to their opinions。 As it is useful that while mankind are
imperfect there should be different opinions； so it is that there
should be different experiments of living； that free scope should be
given to varieties of character； short of injury to others； and that
the worth of different modes of life should be proved practically；
when any one thinks fit to try them。 It is desirable； in short； that
in things which do not primarily concern others； individuality
should assert itself。 Where； not the person's own character； but the
traditions or customs of other people are the rule of conduct； there
is wanting one of the principal ingredients of human happiness； and
quite the chief ingredient of individual and social progress。
In maintaining this principle； the greatest difficulty to be
encountered does not lie in the appreciation of means towards an
acknowledged end； but in the indifference of persons in general to the
end itself。 If it were felt that the free development of individuality
is one of the leading essentials of well…being； that it is not only
a co…ordinate element with all that is designated by the terms
civilisation； instruction； education； culture； but is itself a
necessary part and condition of all those things； there would be no
danger that liberty should be undervalued； and the adjustment of the
boundaries between it and social control would present no
extraordinary difficulty。 But the evil is； that individual spontaneity
is hardly recognised by the common modes of thinking as having any
intrinsic worth； or deserving any regard on its own account。 The
majority； being satisfied with the ways of mankind as they now are
（for it is they who make them what they are）； cannot comprehend why
those ways should not be good enough for everybody； and what is
more； spontaneity forms no part of the ideal of the majority of
moral and social reformers； but is rather looked on with jealousy；
as a troublesome and perhaps rebellious obstruction to the general
acceptance of what these reformers； in their own judgment； think would
be best for mankind。 Few persons； out of Germany； even comprehend
the meaning of the doctrine which Wilhelm von Humboldt； so eminent
both as a savant and as a politician； made the text of a treatise…
that 〃the end of man； or that which is prescribed by the eternal or
immutable dictates of reason； and not suggested by vague and transient
desires； is the highest and most harmonious development of his
powers to a complete and consistent whole〃； that； therefore； the
object 〃towards which every human being must ceaselessly direct his
efforts； and on which especially those who design to influence their
fellow…men must ever keep their eyes； is the individuality of power
and development〃； that for this there are two requisites； 〃freedom；
and variety of situations〃； and that from the union of these arise
〃individual vigour and manifold diversity；〃 which combine themselves