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The Origin of the Distinction of Ranks
by John Millar （1735…1801）
1771
The Origin of the Distinction of Ranks：
or； An Inquiry into the Circumstances
which give rise to Influence and Authority；
In the Different Members of Society。
by John Millar； Esq。
Professor of Law in the University of Glasgow
The fourth edition； corrected。
Edinburgh：
Printed for William Blackwood； South…Bridge Street；
And Longman； Huest； Rees； & Orme； Paternoster…Row；
London； 1806。
Introduction
Those who have examined the manners and custom of nations have had chiefly two objects in view。 By observing the system of law established in different parts of the world； and by remarking the consequences with which they are attended； men have endeavoured to reap advantage from the experience of others； and to make a selection of such institutions and modes of government as appear most worthy of being adopted。 To investigate the causes of different usages has been likewise esteemed an useful as well as an entertaining speculation。 When we contemplate the amazing diversity to be found in the laws of different countries； and even of the same country at different periods； our curiosity is naturally excited to enquire in what manner mankind have been led to embrace such different rules of conduct； and at the same time it is evident； that； unless we are acquainted with the circumstances which have recommended any set of regulations； we cannot form a just notion of their utility； or even determine； in any case； how far they are practicable。 In searching for the causes of those peculiar systems of law and government which have appeared in the world； we must undoubtedly resort； first of all； to the differences of situation； which have suggested different views and motives of action to the inhabitants of particular countries。 Of this kind； are the fertility or barrenness of the soil； the nature of its productions； the species of labour requisite for procuring subsistence； the number of individuals collected together in one community； their proficiency in arts； the advantages which they enjoy for entering into mutual transactions； and for maintaining an intimate correspondence。 The variety that frequently occurs in these； and such other particulars； must have a prodigious influence upon the great body of a people； as； by giving a peculiar direction to their inclinations and pursuits； it must be productive of correspondent habits； dispositions； and ways of thinking。 When we survey the present state of the globe； we find that； in many parts of it； the inhabitants are so destitute of culture； as to appear little above the condition of brute animals； and even when we peruse the remote history of polished nations； we have seldom any difficulty in tracing them to a state of the same rudeness and barbarism。 There is； however； in man a disposition and capacity for improving his condition； by the exertion of which； he is cAred on from one degree of advancement to another； and the similarity of his wants； as well as of the faculties by which those wants are supplied； has every where produced a remarkable uniformity in the several steps of his progression。 A nation of savages； who feel the want of almost every thing requisite for the support of life； must have their attention directed to a small number of objects； to the acquisition of food and clothing； or the procuring shelter from the inclemencies of the weather； and their ideas and feelings； in conformity to their situation； must； of course； be narrow and contracted。 Their first efforts are naturally calculated to increase the means of subsistence； by catching or ensnaring wild animals； or by gathering the spontaneous fruits of the earth； and the experience； acquired in the exercise of these employments； is apt； successively； to point out the methods of taming and rearing cattle； and of cultivating the ground。 According as men have been successful in these great improvements； and find less difficulty in the attainment of bare necessaries； their prospects are gradually enlarged； their appetites and desires are more and more awakened and called forth in pursuit of the several conveniencies of life； and the various branches of manufacture； together with commerce； its inseparable attendant； and with science and literature； the natural offspring of ease and affluence； are introduced； and brought to maturity。 By such gradual advances in rendering their situation more comfortable； the most important alterations are produced in the state and condition of a people： their numbers are increased； the connections of society are extended； and men； being less oppressed with their own wants； are more at liberty to cultivate the feelings of humanity： property； the great source of distinction among individuals； is established； and the various rights of mankind； arising from their multiplied connections； are recognised and protected： the laws of a country are thereby rendered numerous； and a more complex form of government becomes necessary； for distributing justice； and for preventing the disorders which proceed from the jarring interests and passions of a large and opulent community。 It is evident； at the same time； that these； and such other effects of improvement； which have so great a tendency to vary the state of mankind； and their manner of life； will be productive of suitable variations in their taste and sentiments； and in their general system of behaviour。 There is thus； in human society； a natural progress from ignorance to knowledge； and from rude； to civilized manners； the several stages of which are usually accompanied with peculiar laws and custom。 Various accidental causes； indeed； have contributed to accelerate； or to retard this advancement in different countries。 It has even happened that nations； being placed in such unfavourable circumstances as to render them long stationary at a particular period； have been so habituated to the peculiar manners of that age； as to retain a strong tincture of those peculiarities； through every subsequent revolution。 This appears to have occasioned some of the chief varieties which take place in the maxims and customs of nations equally civilized。 The character and genius of a nation may； perhaps； be considered as nearly the same with that of every other in similar circumstances； but the case is very different with respect to individuals； among whom there is often a great diversity； proceeding from no fixed causes that are capable of being ascertained。 Thus； in a multitude of dice thrown together at random； the result； at different times； will be nearly equal； but in one or two throws of a single die； very different numbers may often be produced。 It is to be expected； therefore； that； though the greater part of the political system of any country be derived from the combined influence of the whole people； a variety of peculiar institutions will sometimes take their origin from the casual interposition of particular persons； who happen to be placed at the head of a community； and to be possessed of singular abilities； and views of policy。 This has been regarded； by many writers； as the great source of those differences which are to be found in the laws； and government of different nations。 It is thus that Brama is supposed to have introduced the peculiar customs of Indostan； that Lycurgus is believed to have formed the singular character of the Lacedemonians； and that Solon is looked upon as the author of that very different style of manners which prevailed at Athens。 It is thus； also； that the English constitution is understood to have arisen from the uncommon genius； and patriotic spirit of King Alfred。 In short； there is scarcely any people； ancient or modern； who do not boast of some early monarch； or statesman； to whom it is pretended they owe whatever is remarkable in their form of government。 But； notwithstanding the concurring testimony of historians； concerning the great political changes introduced by the lawgivers of a remote age； there may be reason to doubt； whether the effect of their interpositions has ever been so extensive as is generally supposed。 Before an individual can be invested with so much authority； and possessed of such reflection and foresight as would induce him to act in the capacity of a legislator； he must； probably； have been educated and brought up in the knowledge of those natural manners and customs； which； for ages perhaps； have prevailed among his countrymen。 Under the influence of all the prejudices derived from ancient usage； he will commonly be disposed to prefer the system already established to any other； of which the effects have not been ascertained by experience； or if in any case he should venture to entertain a different opinion； he must be sensible that； from the general prepossession in favour of the ancient establishment； an attempt to overturn it； or to vary it in any considerable degree； would be a dangerous measure； extremely unpopular in itself； and likely to be attended with troublesome consequences。 As the greater part of those heroes and sages that are reputed to have been the founders and modellers of states； are only recorded by uncertain tradition； or by fabulous history； we may be allowed to