the origin of the distinction of ranks-第19部分

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nce　of　old　usage；　was　permitted　to　remain　in　later　times；　when　the　plea　of　necessity　could　no　longer　be　urged　in　its　vindication。　How　shocking　soever　it　may　appear　to　us；　the　custom　of　exposing　infant　children　was　universal　among　the　ancient　inhabitants　of　Greece；　and　was　never　abolished　even　by　such　of　the　Greek　states　as　were　most　distinguished　for　their　learning　and　politeness。（12*）　　　　　According　to　the　laws　and　customs　of　the　Romans；　the　father　had　anciently　an　unlimited　power　of　putting　his　children　to　death；　and　of　selling　them　for　slaves。　While　they　remained　in　his　family；　they　were　incapable　of　having　any　estate　of　their　own；　and　whatever　they　acquired；　either　by　their　own　industry；　or　by　the　donations　of　others；　became　immediately　the　property　of　their　father。　Though　with　respect　to　every　other　person　they　were　regarded　as　free；　yet　with　respect　to　their　father　they　were　considered　as　in　a　state　of　absolute　slavery　and　subjection；　and　they　could　neither　marry；　nor　enter　into　any　other　contract；　without　his　approbation　and　consent。（13*）　　　　　In　one　respect；　the　power　of　a　father　over　his　sons　appears；　in　ancient　Rome；　to　have　extended　even　farther　than　that　of　a　master　over　his　slaves。　If　upon　any　occasion　a　son　had　been　sold　by　his　father；　and　had　afterwards　obtained　his　freedom　from　the　purchaser；　he　did　not　thereby　become　independent；　but　was　again　reduced　under　the　paternal　dominion。　The　same　consequence　followed；　if　he　had　been　sold　and　manumitted　a　second　time；　and　it　was　only　after　a　third　purchase；　that　the　power　of　his　father　was　altogether　dissolved；　and　that　he　was　permitted　to　enjoy　any　real　and　permanent　advantage　from　the　bounty　of　his　master。　　　　　This　peculiarity　is　said　to　have　been　derived　from　a　statute　of　Romulus；　adopted　into　the　laws　of　the　twelve　tables；　and　affords　a　sufficient　proof　that　the　Romans　had　anciently　no　idea　of　a　child　living　in　the　family；　without　being　considered　as　the　slave　of　his　father。　　　　　In　those　early　ages；　when　this　practice　was　first　introduced；　the　Roman　state　was　composed　of　a　few　clans；　or　families　of　barbarians；　the　members　of　which　had　usually　a　strong　attachment　to　one　another；　and　were　at　variance　with　most　of　their　neighbours。　When　a　son　therefore　had　been　banished　from　his　family　by　the　avarice　of　his　father；　we　may　suppose　that；　as　soon　as　he　was　at　liberty；　he　would　not　think　of　remaining　in　a　foreign　tribe；　or　of　submitting　to　the　hardships　of　procuriNg　his　food　in　a　state　of　solitude；　but　that　he　would　rather　choose　to　return　to　his　own　kindred；　and　again　submit　to　that　jurisdiction；　which　was　more　useful　from　the　protection　it　afforded；　than　painful　from　the　service　and　obedience　which　it　required。　　　　　It　is　probable；　however；　that　if　in　this　manner　a　child　had　been　frequently　separated　from　the　company　of　his　relations；　he　would　at　length　grow　weary　of　returning　to　a　society　in　which　he　was　the　object　of　so　little　affection；　and　in　which　he　was　treated　with　so　much　contempt。　How　long　he　would　be　disposed　to　maintain　his　former　connexions；　and　how　often　he　would　be　willing　to　restore　that　property　which　his　father　had　abandoned；　seems；　from　the　nature　of　the　thing；　impossible　to　ascertain。　But　whatever　might　be　the　conduct　of　the　son；　it　seems　to　have　been　intended　by　the　statute　of　Romulus；　that；　after　a　third　sale；　the　property　of　the　father　should　be　finally　extinguished；　and　that　he　should　never　afterwards　recover　a　power　which　he　had　exercised　with　such　immoderate　severity。　Section　II　The　influence　of　the　improvement　of　arts　upon　the　jurisdiction　of　the　father　　　　　Such　was　the　power；　in　early　times；　possessed　by　the　head　of　a　family。　But　the　gradual　advancement　of　a　people　in　civilized　manners；　and　their　subjection　to　regular　government；　have　a　natural　tendency　to　limit　and　restrain　this　primitive　jurisdiction。　When　different　families　are　united　in　a　larger　society；　the　several　members　of　which　have　an　intimate　correspondence　with　each　other；　it　may　be　expected　that　the　exercise　of　domestic　authority　will　begin　to　excite　the　attention　of　the　public。　The　near　relations　of　a　family；　who　have　a　concern　for　the　welfare　of　the　children；　and　who　have　an　opportunity　of　obserVing　the　manner　in　which　they　are　treated；　will　naturally　interpose　by　their　good　offices；　and　endeavour　to　screen　them　from　injustice　and　oppression。　The　abuses　which；　on　some　occasions；　are　known　and　represented　with　all　their　aggravating　circumstances；　will　excite　indignation　and　resentment；　and　will　at　length　give　rise　to　such　regulations　as　are　necessary　for　preventing　the　like　disorders　for　the　future。　　　　　Those　improvements　in　the　state　of　society；　which　are　the　common　effects　of　opulence　and　refinement；　will　at　the　same　time　dispose　the　father　to　use　his　power　with　greater　moderation。　By　living　in　affluence　and　security；　he　is　more　at　leisure　to　exert　the　social　affections；　and　to　cultivate　those　arts　which　tend　to　soften　and　humanize　the　temper。　Being　often　engaged　in　the　business　and　conversation　of　the　world；　and　finding；　in　many　cases；　the　necessity　of　conforming　to　the　humours　of　those　with　whom　he　converses；　he　becomes　less　impatient　of　contradiction；　and　less　apt　to　give　way　to　the　irregular　sallies　of　passion。　His　parental　affection；　though　not　perhaps　more　violent；　becomes　at　least　more　steady　and　uniform；　and　while　it　prompts　him　to　undergo　the　labour　that　may　be　requisite　in　providing　for　his　family；　it　is　not　incompatible　with　that　discretion　which　leads　him　to　bear　with　the　frowardness；　the　folly　and　imprudence　of　his　children；　and　in　his　behaviour　towards　them；　to　avoid　equally　the　excess　of　severity　and　of　indulgence。　　　　　On　the　other　hand；　the　progress　of　arts　and　manufactures　will　contribute　to　undermine　and　weaken　his　power；　and　even　to　raise　the　members　of　his　family　to　a　state　of　freedom　and　independence。　　　　　In　those　rude　and　simple　periods　when　men　are　chiefly　employed　in　hunting　and　fishing；　in　pasturing　cattle；　or　in　cultivating　the　ground；　the　children　are　commonly　brought　up　in　the　house　of　their　father；　and　continuing　in　his　family　as　long　as　he　lives；　they　have　no　occasion　to　acquire　any　separate　property；　but　depend　entirely　for　subsistence　upon　that　hereditary　estate；　of　which　he　is　the　sole　disposer　and　manager。　Their　situation；　however；　in　this；　as　well　as　in　many　other　respects；　is　greatly　altered　by　the　introduction　of　commerce　and　manufactures。　In　a　commercial　country；　a　great　part　of　the　inhabitants　are　employed　in　such　a　manner　as　tends　to　disperse　the　members　of　a　family；　and　often　requires　that　they　should　live　at　a　distance　from　one　another。　　　　　The　children；　at　an　early　period　of　life；　are　obliged　to　leave　their　home；　in　order　to　be　instructed　in　those　trades　and　professions　by　which　it　is　proposed　they　should　earn　a　livelihood；　and　afterwards　to　settle　in　those　parts　of　the　country　which　they　find　convenient　for　prosecuting　their　several　employments。　By　this　alteration　of　circumstances　they　are　emancipated　from　their　father's　authority。　They　are　put　in　a　condition　to　procure　a　maintainance　without　having　recourse　to　his　bounty；　and　by　their　own　labour　and　industry　are　frequently　possessed　of　opulent　fortunes。　As　they　live　in　separate　families　of　their　own；　of　which　they　have　the　entire　direction；　and　are　placed　at　such　a　distance　from　their　father；　that　he　has　no　longer　an　opportunity　of　observing　and　controlling　their　behaviour；　it　is　natural　to　suppose　that　their　former　habits　will　be　gradually　laid　aside　and　forgotten。　　　　　When　we　examine　the　laws　and　customs　of　polished　nations；　they　appear　to　coincide　with　the　foregoing　remarks；　and　leave　no　room　to　doubt　that；　in　most　countries；　the　paternal　jurisdiction　has　been　reduced　within　narrower　bounds；　in　proportion　to　the　ordinary　improvements　of　society。　　　　　The　Romans；　who　for　several　centuries　were　constantly　employed　in　war；　and　for　that　reason　gave　little　attention　to　the　arts　of　peace；　discovered　more　attachment　to　their　barbarous　usages　than　perhaps　any　other　nation　that　arose　to　wealth　and　splendour；　and　their　ancient　practice；　with　respect　to　the　power　of　the　father；　was　therefore　permitted　to　remain　in　the　most　flourishing　periods　of　their　government。　The　alterations　in　this　particular；　which　were　at　length　found　expedient；　having；　for　the　most　part；　occurred　in　times　of　light　and　knowledge；　are　recorded　with　some　degree　of　accuracy；　and　as　they　mark　the　progress　of　a　great　people　in　an　important　branch　of　policy；　may　deserve　to　be　particularly　considered。　　　　　We　know　nothing　with　certainty　concerning　the　attempts　which；　in　a　very　remote　period；　are　supposed　to　have　been　made　for　restraining　the　exposition　of　infants。　By　a　law　of　Romulus；　parents　are　said　to　have　been　obliged　to　maintain　their　male　children；　and　the　eldest　female；　unless　where　a　child　was；　by　two　of　the　neighbours　called　for　the　purpose；　declared　to　be　a　monster。　A　regulation　of　the　same　nature　is　mentioned　among　the　laws　of　the　twelve　tables　；　but　there　is　ground　to　believe　that　little　regard　was　paid　to　it；　and　even　under　the　emperors；　the　exposing　of　new…born　children；　of　either　sex；　appears　to　have　been　exceedingly　common。　　　　　The　first　effectual　regulations　in　favour　of　children　were　those　which　bestowed　upon　them　a　privile