the origin of the distinction of ranks-第21部分

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2。　Leviticus；　chap。　xix；　ver。　32。　3。　Job；　chap。　xxxii。　4。　Histoire　generale　des　voyages。　5。　Notwithstanding　that　old　men　are　commonly　so　much　respected　among　savages；　they　are　sometimes　put　to　death　when　so　far　advanced　in　years　as　to　have　lost　the　use　of　their　faculties。　This　shows；　that　the　estimation　in　which　they　are　held　does　not　proceed　from　a　principle　of　humanity；　but　from　a　regard　to　the　useful　knowledge　they　are　supposed　to　possess。　　6。　Pope's　translation　of　the　Iliad；　book　9；　l。　582。　7。　Genesis；　chap。　xxvii；　ver。　38。　　8。　Genesis；　chap。　xlii；　ver。　37。　9。　Deuteronomy；　chap。　xxi；　ver。　18。　10。　Exodus；　chap。　xxi；　ver。　7。　11。　Narrative　of　the　honourable　John　Byron。　　12。　AElian　mentions　the　Thebans　alone　as　having　made　a　law　forbidding　the　exposition　of　infants　under　a　capital　punishment；　and　ordaining；　that　if　the　parents　were　indigent；　their　children；　upon　application　to　the　magistrate；　should　be　maintained　and　brought　up　as　slaves。　AElian；　var。　hist。　lib。　2；　cap。　7。　13。　Dionysius　of　Halicarnassus；　lib。　11；　l。　11。　Dig。　de　lib。　et　postum。　？3。　Inst。　per　quas　person。　ciuq。　＇cuiq。＇　adquir。　1。　ult。　Cod。　de　impub。　et　al。　subst。　1。　4。　Dig。　de　judic。　？6。　Inst。　de　inut。　stip。　　　　　Upon　the　same　principle　a　father　might　claim　his　son　from　any　person；　by　the　ordinary　action　upon　property；　lib。　1。　？2。　Dig。　de　rei　vind。　If　a　son　had　been　stolen　from　his　father；　the　'actio　furti'　was　given　against　the　thief；　l。　38。　Dig。　de　furt。　When　children　were　sold　by　their　father；　the　form　of　conveyance　was　the　same　which　was　used　in　the　transference　of　that　valuable　property　which　was　called　'res　mancipi'　；　Cai。　Inst。　1。　6；　3。　　14。　It　was　called　'peculium　castrense。'　15。　Peculium　quasi　castrense。　16。　The　subject　so　acquired　was　called　peculium　adventitium。　Constantine　made　the　first　regulations　concerning　it；　which　were　extended　by　his　successors；　especially　by　the　emperor　Justinian。　Vid。　Tit。　Cod。　de　bon。　matern。　　Tit。　de　bon。　quae　lib。　17。　Aristot。　Ethic：　lib。　6。　cap。　10。　18。　Though　in　China　a　man　is　not　allowed　to　have　more　wives　than　one；　yet　he　may　have　any　number　of　concubines；　which；　in　the　point　under　consideration；must　have　nearly　the　same　effect。　Le　Compte's　memoirs　of　China。　19。　Ibid。　20。　Travels　of　the　Jesuits；　compiled　from　their　letters；　translated　by　Lockman；　vol。　1；　p。　448。　Chapter　III　The　authority　of　a　Chief　over　the　members　of　a　tribe　or　village　Section　I　The　origins　of　a　chief；　and　the　degrees　of　influence　which　he　is　enabled　to　acquire　　　　　Having　considered　the　primitive　state　of　a　family　during　the　life　of　the　father；　we　may　now　examine　the　changes　which　happen　in　their　situation；　upon　the　death　of　this　original　governor；　and　the　different　species　of　authority　to　which　they　are　then　commonly　subjected。　　　　　When　the　members　of　a　family　become　too　numerous　to　be　all　maintained　and　lodged　in　the　same　house；　some　of　them　are　under　the　necessity　of　leaving　it；　and　providing　themselves　with　a　new　habitation。　The　sons；　having　arrived　at　the　age　of　manhood；　and　being　disposed　to　marry；　are　led　by　degrees　to　have　a　separate　residence；　where　they　may　live　in　a　more　comfortable　manner。　They　build　their　huts　very　near　one　to　another；　and　each　of　them　forms　a　distinct　family；　of　which　he　assumes　the　direction；　and　which　he　endeavours　to　supply　with　the　means　of　subsistence。　Thus　the　original　society　is　gradually　enlarged　into　a　village　or　tribe；　and　according　as　it　is　placed　in　circumstances　which　favour　population；　and　render　its　condition　prosperous　and　flourishing；　it　becomes　proportionably　extensive；　and　is　subdivided　into　a　greater　multiplicity　of　branches。　　　　　From　the　situation　of　this　early　community；　it　is　natural　to　suppose　that　an　uncommon　degree　of　attachment　will　subsist　between　all　the　different　persons　of　which　it　is　composed。　As　the　ordinary　life　of　a　savage　renders　him　hardy　and　robust；　so　he　is　a　stranger　to　all　those　considerations　of　utility；　by　which；　in　a　polished　nation；　men　are　commonly　induced　to　restrain　their　appetites；　and　to　abstain　from　violating　the　possessions　of　each　other。　Different　clans　or　tribes　of　barbarians　are　therefore　disposed　to　rob　and　plunder　one　another；　as　often　as　they　have　an　opportunity　of　doing　it　with　success；　and　the　reciprocal　inroads　and　hostilities　in　which　they　are　engaged　become　the　source　of　continual　animosities　and　quarrels；　which　are　prosecuted　with　a　degree　of　fury　and　rancour　sited　to　the　temper　and　dispositions　of　the　people。　Thus　the　members　of　every　single　clan　are　frequently　at　variance　with　all　their　neighbours　around　them。　This　makes　it　necessary　that　they　should　be　constantly　upon　their　guard；　in　order　to　repel　the　numerous　attack　to　which　they　are　exposed；　and　to　avoid　that　barbarous　treatment；　which　they　have　reason　to　expect；　were　they　ever　to　fall　under　the　power　of　their　enemies。　As　they　are　divided　from　the　rest　of　the　world；　so　they　are　linked　together　by　a　sense　of　their　common　danger；　and　by　a　regard　to　their　common　interest。　They　are　united　in　all　their　pastimes　and　amusements；　as　well　as　in　their　serious　occupations；　and　when　they　go　out　upon　a　military　enterprise；　they　are　no　less　prompted　to　show　their　friendship　for　one　another；　than　to　gratify　their　common　passions　of　enmity　and　resentment。　As　they　have　been　brought　up　together　from　their　infancy；　and　have　little　intercourse　with　those　of　a　different　community；　their　affections　are　raised　to　a　greater　height；　in　proportion　to　the　narrowness　of　that　circle　to　which　they　are　confined。　As　the　uniformity　of　their　life　supplies　them　with　few　occurrences；　and　as　they　have　no　opportunity　of　acquiring　any　great　variety　of　knowledge；　their　thoughts　are　the　more　fixed　upon　those　particular　objects　which　have　once　excited　their　attention；　they　retain　more　steadily　whatever　impressions　they　have　received；　and　become　the　more　devoted　to　those　entertainments　and　practices　with　which　they　have　been　acquainted。　　　　　Hence　it　is；　that　a　savage　is　never　without　difficulty　prevailed　upon　to　abandon　his　family　and　friends；　and　to　relinquish　the　sight　of　those　objects　to　which　he　has　been　long　familiar。　To　be　banished　from　them　is　accounted　the　greatest　of　all　misfortunes。　His　cottage；　his　fields；　the　faces　and　conversation　of　his　kindred　and　companions；　recur　incessantly　to　his　memory；　and　prevent　him　from　relishing　any　situation　where　these　are　wanting。　He　clings　to　those　well…known　objects；　and　dwells　upon　all　those　favourite　enjoyments　which　he　has　lost。　The　poorer　the　country　in　which　he　has　lived；　the　more　wretched　the　manner　of　life　to　which　he　has　been　accustomed；　the　loss　of　it　appears　to　him　the　more　insupportable。　That　very　poverty　and　wretchedness；　which　contracted　the　sphere　of　his　amusements；　is　the　chief　circumstance　that　confirms　his　attachment　to　those　few　gratifications　which　it　afforded；　and　renders　him　the　more　a　slave　to　those　particular　habits　which　he　has　acquired。　Not　all　the　allurements　of　European　luxury　could　bribe　a　Hottentot　to　resign　that　coarse　manner　of　life　which　was　become　habitual　to　him；　and　we　may　remark；　that　the　'maladie　du　pays；'　which　has　been　supposed　peculiar　to　the　inhabitants　of　Switzerland；　is　more　or　less　felt　by　the　inhabitants　of　all　countries；　according　as　they　approach　nearer　to　the　ages　of　rudeness　and　simplicity。（1*）　　　　　Those　tribes　that　inhabit　the　more　uncultivated　parts　of　the　earth　being　almost　continually　at　war　with　their　neighbours；　and　finding　it　necessary　to　be　always　in　a　posture　of　defence；　have　constant　occasion　for　a　leader　to　conduct　them　in　their　various　military　enterprises。　　　　　Wherever　a　number　of　people　meet　together　in　order　to　execute　any　measures　of　common　concern；　it　is　convenient　that　some　person　should　be　appointed　to　direct　their　proceedings；　and　prevent　them　from　running　into　confusion。　It　accordingly　appears　to　be　a　regulation；　uniformly　adopted　in　all　countries；　that　every　public　assembly　should　have　a　president；　invested　with　a　degree　of　authority　suitable　to　the　nature　of　the　business　committed　to　their　care。　But　in　no　case　is　a　regulation　of　this　kind　so　necessary　as　in　the　conduct　of　a　military　expedition。　There　is　no　situation　in　which　a　body　of　men　are　so　apt　to　run　into　disorder；　as　in　war；　where　it　is　impossible　that　they　should　co…operate；　and　preserve　the　least　regularity；　unless　they　are　united　under　a　single　person；　impowered　to　direct　their　movements；　and　to　superintend　and　control　their　several　operations。　　　　　The　members　of　a　family　having　been　usually　conducted　by　the　father　in　all　their　excursions　of　moment；　are　naturally　disposed；　even　when　their　society　becomes　larger；　to　continue　in　that　course　of　action　to　which　they　have　been　accustomed；　and　after　they　are　deprived　of　this　common　parent；　to　fall　under　the　guidance　of　some　other　person；　who　appears　next　to　him　in　rank；　and　has　obtained　the　second　place　in　their　esteem　and　confidence。　　　　　Superiority　in　strength；　courage；　and　other　personal　accomplishments；　is　the　first　circumstance　by　which　any　single　person　is　raised　to　be　the　leader　of　a　tribe；　and　by　which　he　is　enabled　to　maintain　his　authority。　　　　　In　that　rude　period；　when　men　live　by　hunting　and　fishing；　they　have　no　opportunity　of　acquiring　any　considerable　property；　and　there　are　no　distinctions　in　the　rank　of　individuals；　bu