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in their institutions and customs。 These different communities being frequently at war； and being exposed to continual invasions from their neighbours； are in many cases determined； by the consideration of their mutual interest； to unite against their common enemies； and to form a variety of combinations； which； from the influence of particular circumstances； are more or less permanent。 Having found the advantage of joining their forces in one expedition； they are naturally disposed to continue the like association in another； and by degrees are encouraged to enter into a general alliance。 The intercourse which people； in such a situation； have maintained in war will not be entirely dissolved even in time of peace； and though the different villages should be originally strangers to each other； yet； having many opportunities of assembling in their military enterprises； they cannot fail to contract an acquaintance； which will become an inducement to their future correspondence。 They have frequent opportunities of meeting in their common sports and diversions； the leading men entertain one another with rustic hospitality and magnificence： intermarriages begin to take place between their respective families； and the various connexions of society are gradually multiplied and extended。 An alliance for mutual defence and security is a measure suggested by such obvious views of expediency that it must frequently take place； not only among tribes of husbandmen； but also among those of shepherds； and even of mere savages。 Many instances of it are； accordingly； to be found in Tartary； upon the coast of Guinea； in the history of the ancient Germans； and among the Indians of America。 But such alliances are not likely to produce a permanent union； until the populousness of a country has been increased by agriculture； and the inhabitants； in consequence of that employment； have taken up a fixed residence in the same neighbourhood。 From a confederacy of this kind； a very simple form of government is commonly established。 As every village； or separate community； is subjected to its own leader； their joint measures fall naturally under the direction of all those distinguished personages； whose frequent meeting and deliberation gives rise； in a short time； to a regular council； or senate； invested with a degree of power and authority corresponding to what each of its members has acquired over his own particular domestics and retainers。 The same considerations however which determine the individuals of a single tribe to be guided by a particular person in their smaller expeditions； must recommend a similar expedient in conducting a numerous army； composed of different clans； often disagreeing in their views； and little connected with each other。 While every chief has the conduct of his own dependents； it is found convenient that some one leader should be instructed with the supreme command of their united forces； and as that dignity is commonly bestowed upon the person who； by his opulence； is most capable of supporting it； he is frequently enabled to maintain it during life； and even in many cases to render it hereditary。 In this manner a great chief； or king； is placed at the head of a nation； and is permitted to assume the inspection and superintendence of what relates to its defence and security。 But； notwithstanding the rank and pre…eminence enjoyed by this primitive sovereign； it may easily be conceived that his authority will not be very considerable。 His advancement can hardy fail to excite the jealousy of chiefs unaccustomed to subordination； who will be disposed to take every opportunity of curbing his pretensions； and to allow him no higher prerogatives than are sufficient to answer the purposes for which he was created。 His interpositions； in matters of public concern； will depend very much upon times and circumstances； and being directed by no previous rules； will be frequently made in an irregular and desultory manner。 In a day of battle； when placed at the head of his army； he may venture； perhaps； to rule with a high hand； and it may be dangerous for any of his followers to disobey his orders； but upon other occasions his power is usually confined within a narrower compass； and frequently extends no further than to the members of his own clan。 After the conclusion of a military enterprise； when the other tribes have retired to their separate places of abode； they are in a great measure withdrawn from his influence； and are placed under the immediate jurisdiction and authority of the respective chiefs by whom they are protected。 As it is necessary that these leading men should give their consent to every public measure of importance； they are usually convened for that purpose by the king； who at the same time is accustomed to preside in all their deliberations。 Such； as far as can be collected from the scattered hints delivered by travellers； is the state of government in many rude kingdom； both upon the coast of Africa； or in those parts of Asia； where a number of distinct tribes or villages have been recently and imperfectly united。 In the Odyssey； Alcinous； king of the Pheacians； says expressly； 'There are twelve chiefs who share dominion in the kingdom； and I am the thirteenth。'（1*） He is accordingly obliged to call a council of his nobles； before he can venture to furnish Ulysses with a single ship； in order to transport him to his native country。 In the island of Ithaca； the power of the chiefs； who usually deliberated in council upon the affairs of the nation； is equally conspicuous。
'Twas silence all； at last Aegyptius spoke； Aegyptius； by his age and sorrows broke： Since great Ulysses sought the Phrygian plains； Within these walls inglorious silence reigns。 Say then； ye Peers！ by whose commands we meet？ Why here once more in solemn council sit？ Ye young； ye old； the weighty cause disclose： Arrives some message of invading foes？ Or say； does high necessity of state Inspire some patriot； and demand debate？ The present synod speak its author wise； Assist him； Jove！ thou regent of the skies！（2*）
From the early history of all the Greek states； we have reason to believe that their government was of a similar nature。 The country of Attica； in particular； is said to have been peopled by colonies which were brought； under different leaders； from Egypt and some of the neighbouring countries； and which formed a number of distinct tribes or villages； independent of one another。 The first association among these little societies happened in the time of Cecrops； the founder of Athens； who became their general； and who made a considerable reformation in their police and manners。 They were afterwards more intimately united in the reign of Theseus； when the nobility； or principal inhabitants of the several towns or villages； were persuaded to settle at Athens； and composed a senate； or national council； which exercised an authority over the whole country； and obtained the chief direction of religious matters； together with the privilege of electing magistrates； and of teaching and dispensing the laws。 The resemblance between this and the ancient Roman constitution is sufficiently obvious。 The foundation of that mighty empire was laid by a few tribes of barbarians； originally distinct from one another； who at first inhabited different quarters of the city； and who appear to have lived under the jurisdiction of their respective chiefs。（3*） This was； in all probability； the origin of that connexion between the poor and the rich； which remained in after ages； and which has been commonly ascribed to the policy of Romulus。 People of the lower class at Rome were all attached to some particular patron of rank and distinction； and every patrician had a number of clients； who； besides owing him respect and submission； were bound to portion his daughters； to pay his debts； and to ransom his person from captivity； as； on the other hand； they were entitled to his advice and protection。 Of these leading men； who had an extensive influence over the populace； was formed the primitive senate； or council of the sovereign； which appears to have had the absolute determination of peace and war； and which； in the first instance； had not only the privilege of deliberating upon all public regulations； but also； upon the death of a king； that of naming a successor to the royal dignity。 It must not be overlooked； however； that in the Roman； as well as in many of the Greek governments； there was originally a considerable mixture of democracy； arising from the peculiar circumstances of the people。 The different tribes； or families； united in the formation of Rome； or of the independent cities which arose in Peloponnesus and some of the neighbouring countries； had very little property； either in moveables or in land； and their poverty must have prevented the growth of authority in their respective leaders。 The influence of a chief； in each of those petty states； depended； in all probability； upon the personal attachment of his followers； and their admiration of his abilities； more than up