the origin of the distinction of ranks-第28部分

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；　upon　the　personal　attachment　of　his　followers；　and　their　admiration　of　his　abilities；　more　than　upon　his　superiority　in　wealth；　and　the　power　which　that　influence　enabled　him　to　assume　was；　therefore；　far　from　being　absolute。　For　this　reason；　under　the　kingly　government　of　Rome；　the　authority　of　the　senate；　composed　of　all　the　chiefs；　was　not　alone　sufficient　for　making　general　laws；　or　transacting　business　where　dissension　might　be　apprehended；　but　its　decrees；　in　such　cases；　were　usually　confirmed　by　an　assembly　consisting　of　the　whole　people。　The　same　practice　obtained　in　Athens　and　Sparta；　and　probably　in　most　of　the　other　states　of　Greece。　　　　　The　particulars　related　by　Caesar　concerning　the　inhabitants　of　ancient　Gaul　may　be　considered　as　affording　the　most　authentic　evidence　of　the　state　of　government　in　any　rude　country。　We　learn　from　this　author　that　the　whole　of　that　country　was　divided　into　a　number　of　separate　states；　independent　of　each　other；　and　differing　considerably　in　the　degrees　of　their　power；　as　well　as　in　the　extent　of　their　territories。　In　the　several　towns；　villages；　or　families；　belonging　to　each　nation；　there　were　certain　leading　persons；　possessed　of　great　influence　and　authority；　by　whom　their　respective　followers　were　governed　and　protected。　The　affairs　of　a　whole　nation　were　conducted　by　a　king；　or　chief　magistrate；　assisted　by　a　national　council；　and　when　different　nations　were　engaged　in　a　common　enterprise；　they　made　choice　of　a　general　to　command　their　united　forces。（4*）　　　　　The　German　nations　who　about　the　fifth　century；　over…ran　and　subdued　the　provinces　of　the　Western　empire；　were　in　a　different　situation　from　any　other　people　with　whose　history　we　are　acquainted。　While　they　remained　in　their　own　country；　those　nations　had　made　considerable　advances　in　the　pastoral　state；　and　had　thereby　acquired　a　good　deal　of　wealth　in　herds　and　flock。　By　their　settlement　in　the　Roman　provinces；　they　had　an　opportunity；　as　has　been　already　observed；　of　acquiring　large　estates　in　land；　which　tended　to　augment　the　authority　of　different　leaders　in　proportion　to　their　riches。　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　large　tract　of　country　were；　at　the　same　time；　associated　for　their　mutual　defence；　and　in　their　common　expeditions；　were　conducted　by　a　great　chief；　or　king；　whose　rank　and　dignity；　like　that　of　every　subordinate　leader；　was　supported　by　his　own　private　estate。　There　were　two　circumstances　which　rendered　the　associations　made　upon　this　occasion　much　more　extensive　than　they　commonly　are　among　nations　equally　barbarous。　　　　　As　each　of　the　nations　who　settled　in　the　Western　empire；　though　seldom　large；　was；　by　the　rapid　progress　of　its　arm；　and　by　a　sudden　improvement　in　agriculture；　enabled　to　occupy　a　prodigious　quantity　of　land；　the　different　proprietors；　among　whom　that　land　was　divided；　were　placed　at　a　great　distance　from　one　another；　and　spread　over　a　wide　country。　But　many　of　these　proprietors　consisting　of　kindred　or　acquaintance；　and　all　of　them　having　been　accustomed　to　act　under　one　commander；　they　were　still　inclined；　how　remote　soever　their　situation；　to　maintain　a　correspondence；　and　to　unite　in　their　military　enterprises。　　　　　The　state　of　the　Roman　provinces　was　another　circumstance　which　promoted　an　extensive　association　among　the　conquerors。　Each　province　of　the　Roman　empire　constituted；　in　some　measure；　a　separate　government；　the　several　parts　of　which　had　all　a　dependence　upon　one　another。　The　inhabitants；　not　to　mention　their　ancient　national　attachment；　had　usually　a　set　of　laws　and　customs　peculiar　to　themselves；　and　were　governed　by　the　same　officers　civil　and　military。　They　were　accustomed　on　public　occasions　to　act　in　concert；　and　to　consider　themselves　as　having　a　common　interest。　The　capital；　which　was　the　seat　of　the　governor；　became　the　centre　of　government；　to　which　the　gentry　of　the　province　resorted　in　expectation　of　preferment；　or　with　a　view　of　sharing　in　the　pleasures　of　a　court；　and　from　thence；　to　the　most　distant　parts　of　the　country；　innumerable　channels　of　communication　were　opened；　through　the　principal　towns；　where　trade　was　carried　on；　where　taxes　were　levied；　or　where　justice　was　administered。　　　　　The　connexions；　which　had　thus　subsisted　for　ages　between　the　several　districts　of　large　territory；　were　not　entirely　destroyed　when　it　came　under　the　dominion　of　the　barbarians。　As　the　ancient　inhabitants　were　no　where　extirpated；　but　either　by　submitting　to　servitude；　or　by　entering　into　various　treaties　of　alliance；　were　incorporated　and　blended　with　the　conquerors；　the　habits　of　intercourse；　and　the　system　of　political　union　which　remained　with　the　former；　was；　in　some　degree；　communicated　to　the　latter。　When　different　tribes；　therefore；　though　strangers　to　each　other；　had　settled　in　the　same　province；　they　were　easily　reduced　under　one　sovereign；　and　the　boundaries　of　a　modern　kingdom；　came　frequently；　in　the　western　part　of　Europe；　to　be　nearly　of　the　same　extent　with　the　dominions　which　had　been　formerly　subject　to　a　Roman　governor。　　　　　In　proportion　to　the　number　of　tribes；　or　separate　families；　united　in　one　kingdom；　and　to　the　wideness　of　the　country　over　which　they　were　scattered；　the　union　between　them　was　loose　and　feeble。　Every　proprietor　of　land　maintained　a　sort　of　independence；　and　notwithstanding　the　confederacy　of　which　he　was　a　member；　assumed　the　privilege　of　engaging　in　private　wars　at　pleasure。　From　the　violent　disposition　to　theft　and　rapine　which　prevailed　in　that　age；　neighbouring　proprietors；　when　not　occupied　in　a　joint　expedition；　were　tempted　to　commit　depredations　upon　each　other；　and　mutual　injuries　between　the　same　individuals　being　often　repeated；　became　the　source　of　family　quarrels；　which　were　prosecuted　with　implacable　animosity　and　rancour。　There　was　no　sufficient　authority　in　the　public　for　repressing　these　disorders。　If；　upon　great　provocation；　the　king　had　been　excited　to　humble　and　punish　an　opulent　baron；　he　found　in　many　cases　that　the　whole　force　of　the　crown　was　requisite　for　that　purpose；　and　by　the　hazard　and　difficulty　of　the　attempt；　was　commonly　taught　to　be　cautious；　for　the　future；　of　involving　himself　in　such　disputes。　　　　　As　individuals　therefore；　in　those　times　of　violence　and　confusion；　were　continually　exposed　to　injustice　and　oppression；　and　received　little　or　no　protection　from　government；　they　found　it　necessary　to　be　constantly　attentive　to　their　own　safety。　It　behooved　every　baron；　not　only　to　support　his　own　personal　dignity；　and　to　maintain　his　own　rights　against　the　attacks　of　all　his　neighbours；　but　also　to　protect　his　retainers　and　dependents；　and　he　was　led；　upon　that　account；　to　regulate　the　state　of　his　barony　in　such　a　manner；　as　to　preserve　the　union　of　all　its　members；　to　secure　their　fidelity　and　service；　and　to　keep　them　always　in　a　posture　of　defence。　With　this　view；　when　his　relations；　who　had　hitherto　lived　about　his　house；　were　gradually　permitted　to　have　families　of　their　own；　he　did　not　bestow　upon　them　separate　estates；　which　would　have　rendered　them　independent；　but　he　assigned　them　such　portions　of　land　as　were　thought　sufficient　for　their　maintenance；　to　be　held　upon　condition；　that　whenever　they　were　called　upon；　they　should　be　ready　to　serve　him　in　war；　and　that；　in　all　their　controversies；　they　should　submit　to　his　jurisdiction。　These　grants　were　made　for　no　limited　time；　but　might　be　resumed　at　pleasure；　so　that　though　the　master　was　not　likely　without　some　extraordinary　offence；　to　deprive　his　kinsmen　of　their　possessions；　yet　his　power　in　this　respect　being　indisputable；　it　could　hardly　fail　to　keep　them　in　awe；　and　to　produce　an　implicit　obedience　to　his　commands。　　　　　The　military　tenants；　supported　in　this　manner；　were　denominated　vassals；　and　the　land　held　by　any　person　upon　such　terms　has　been　called；　a　fief；　though　many　writers；　in　order　to　distinguish　it　from　what　afterwards　went　under　the　same　name；　have　termed　it　a　benefice。　　　　　When　the　estate　of　a　baron　became　extensive；　the　slaves；　by　whom　it　was　cultivated；　were　likewise　sent　to　a　distance　from　the　house　of　their　master；　and　were　placed　in　separate　families；　each　of　which　obtained　the　management　of　a　particular　farm；　but　that　they　might；　in　those　disorderly　times；　be　more　easily　protected　by　the　owner；　and　might　be　in　a　condition　to　defend　and　assist　one　another；　a　number　of　them　were　usually　collected　together；　and　composed　a　little　village。　Hence　they　received　the　appellation　of　villani；　or　villains。　　　　　The　whole　of　a　kingdom　was　thus　divided　into　a　number　of　baronies；　of　greater　or　smaller　extent；　and　regulated　nearly　in　the　same　manner。　The　king　was　at　the　head　of　a　barony　similar　in　every　respect　to　those　of　his　subjects；　though　commonly　larger；　and　therefore　capable　of　maintaining　a　greater　number　of　vassals　and　dependents。　But　the　land　which　belonged　to　the　barons；　was　held　in　the　same　independent　manner　with　that　which　belonged　to　the　king。　As　each　of　those　warlike　chiefs　had　purchased　his　demesnes　by　his　own　activity　and　valour；　he　claimed　the　absolute　enjoyment　and　disposal　of　them　together　with　the　privilege　of　transmitting　them　to　his　posterity；　and　as　he　had　not　been　indebted　to　the　crown　for　his　original　possession；　ne