the origin of the distinction of ranks-第29部分

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　them　to　his　posterity；　and　as　he　had　not　been　indebted　to　the　crown　for　his　original　possession；　neither　was　he　obliged　to　secure　the　continuance　of　it；　by　serving　the　king　in　war；　or　by　submitting　to　his　jurisdiction。　Their　property；　therefore；　was　such　as　has　been　called　allodial；　in　contradiction　to　that　feudal　tenure　enjoyed　by　their　respective　military　tenants。（5*）　　　　　These　peculiarities；　in　the　state　of　the　kingdoms　which　were　formed　upon　the　ruins　of　the　Roman　empire；　had　a　visible　effect　upon　their　constitution　of　government。　According　to　the　authority　possessed　by　the　barons；　each　over　his　own　barony；　and　their　independence　with　respect　to　each　other；　and　with　respect　to　the　king；　was　their　joint　power　and　influence　over　that　great　community　of　which　they　were　members。　The　supreme　powers　of　government　in　every　kingdom　were；　therefore；　exercised　by　an　assembly　composed　of　all　those　proprietors；　and　commonly　summoned　by　the　king　on　every　great　emergency。　　　　　Two　meetings　of　this　great　council　appear　to　have　been　regularly　held　in　a　year；　for　the　ordinary　dispatch　of　business；　the　first；　after　the　seed…time；　to　determine　their　military　operations　during　the　summer；　the　second；　before　the　harvest；　in　order　to　divide　the　booty。　In　those　meetings　it　was　customary　also　to　rectify　abuses　by　introducing　new　regulations；　and　to　decide　those　law…suits　which　had　arisen　between　independent　proprietors　of　land。　Such　was　the　business　of　the　early　parliaments　in　France；　of　the　Cortes　in　Spain；　of　the　Wittenagemote　in　England；　and　in　each　of　the　feudal　kingdom；　we　discover　evident　marks　of　a　national　council；　constituted　in　the　same　manner；　and　invested　with　similar　privileges。（6*）　　　　　These　observations　may　serve　to　show　the　general　aspect　and　complexion　of　that　political　constitution　which　results　from　the　first　union　of　rude　tribes；　or　small　independent　societies。　The　government　resulting　from　that　union　is　apt　to　be　of　a　mixed　nature；　in　which　there　is　a　nobility　distinguished　from　the　people；　and　a　king　exalted　above　the　nobles。　But　though；　according　to　that　system；　the　peculiar　situation　of　different　nations　may　have　produced　some　variety　in　the　powers　belonging　to　these　different　orders；　yet；　unless　in　very　poor　states；　the　influence　acquired　by　the　nobles　has　commonly　been　such　as　to　occasion　a　remarkable　prevalence　of　aristocracy。　Section　II　The　natural　progress　of　government　in　a　rude　kingdom　　　　　The　continued　union　of　rude　tribes；　or　small　societies；　has　a　tendency　to　produce　a　great　alteration　in　the　political　system　of　a　people。　The　same　circumstances；　by　which；　in　a　single　tribe；　a　chief　is　gradually　advanced　over　the　different　heads　of　families；　contribute；　in　a　kingdom；　to　exalt　the　sovereign　above　the　chiefs；　and　to　extend　his　authority　throughout　the　whole　of　his　dominions。　　　　　As　the　king　is　placed　at　the　head　of　the　nation；　and　acts　the　most　conspicuous　part　in　all　their　public　measures；　his　high　rank　and　station　reflect　upon　him　a　degree　of　splendour；　which　is　apt　to　obscure　the　lustre　of　every　inferior　chief；　and　the　longer　he　has　remained　in　a　situation　where　he　excites　the　admiration　and　respect　of　the　people；　it　is　to　be　supposed　that　their　habits　of　submission　to　him　will　be　the　more　confirmed。　　　　　From　the　opulence；　too；　of　the　sovereign；　which　is　generally　much　greater　than　that　of　any　other　member　of　the　community；　as　well　as　from　the　nature　of　his　office；　he　has　more　power　to　reward　and　protect　his　friends；　and　to　punish　or　depress　those　who　have　become　the　objects　of　his　resentment　or　displeasure。　The　consideration　of　this　must　operate　powerfully　upon　individuals；　as　a　motive　to　court　his　favour；　and；　of　consequence；　to　support　his　interest。　It　is　therefore　to　be　concluded　that；　from　the　natural　course　of　things；　the　immediate　followers　and　dependents　of　the　king　will　be　constantly　increasing；　and　those　of　every　inferior　leader　will　be　diminishing　in　the　same　proportion。　　　　　In　a　government　so　constituted　as　to　introduce　a　continual　jealousy　between　the　crown　and　the　nobles；　it　must　frequently　happen　that　the　latter；　instead　of　prosecuting　a　uniform　plan　for　aggrandizing　their　own　order；　should　be　occupied　with　private　quarrels　and　dissensions　among　themselves；　so　that　the　king；　who　is　ready　to　improve　every　conjuncture　for　extending　his　power；　may　often　employ　and　assist　the　great　lords　in　destroying　each　other；　or　take　advantage　of　those　occasions　when　they　have　been　weakened　by　their　continued　struggles；　and　are　in　no　condition　to　oppose　his　demands。　　　　　According　as　the　real　influence　and　authority　of　the　crown　are　extended；　its　prerogatives　are　gradually　augmented。　When　the　king　finds　that　the　original　chiefs　have　become　in　a　great　measure　dependent　upon　him；　he　is　not　solicitous　about　consulting　them　in　the　management　of　public　affairs；　and　the　meetings　of　the　national　council；　being　seldom　called；　or　being　attended　only　by　such　members　as　are　entirely　devoted　to　the　crown；　dwindle　away　from　time　to　time；　and　are　at　last　laid　aside　altogether。　The　judicial　power　of　the　heads　of　different　tribes　is　gradually　subjected　to　similar　encroachments；　and　that　jurisdiction；　which　they　at　first　held　in　virtue　of　their　own　authority；　is　rendered　subordinate　to　the　tribunal　of　the　monarch；　who；　after　having　established　the　right　of　appeal　from　their　courts　to　his　own　court；　is　led　to　appoint　the　judges　in　each　particular　district。　The　power　of　making　laws；　as　well　as　that　of　determining　peace　and　war；　and　of　summoning　all　his　subjects　to　the　field；　may　come　in　like　manner　to　be　exercised　at　the　discretion　of　the　prince。　This　progress　of　government；　towards　monarchy；　though　it　seem　to　hold　universally；　is　likely　to　be　accompanied　with　some　diversity　of　appearances　in　different　countries；　and；　in　particular；　is　commonly　more　rapid　in　a　small　state　than　in　a　large　one；　in　which　point　of　view　the　ancient　Greek　and　Romans　are　most　remarkably　distinguished　from　the　greater　part　of　the　feudal　kingdoms　in　Europe。　　　　　The　Roman　and　Greek　states　were　originally　of　small　extent；　and　the　people　belonging　to　each　of　them　being；　for　the　most　part；　collected　in　one　city；　were　led　in　a　short　time　to　cultivate　an　acquaintance。　The　police　which　was　easily　established　in　such　a　limited　territory；　put　a　stop　to　the　divisions　so　prevalent　among　neighbouring　tribes　of　barbarians。　Those　who　belonged　to　different　families　were　soon　restrained　from　injuring　one　another；　and　lived　in　security　under　the　protection　of　the　government。　By　conversing　together　almost　every　day；　their　ancient　prejudices　were　eradicated；　and　their　animosities；　being　no　longer　cherished　by　reciprocal　acts　of　hostility；　were　allowed　to　subside；　and　left　no　traces　behind。　The　whole　people；　being　early　engaged　in　violent　struggles　with　the　petty　states　around　them；　were　obliged　to　hold　an　intimate　correspondence；　and　acquired　an　high　sense　of　public　interest。　In　proportion　as　they　were　thus　incorporated　in　a　larger　community；　they　lost　all　inferior　distinctions。　The　members　of　each　particular　tribe　had　no　reason　to　maintain　their　peculiar　connexions；　or　to　preserve　their　primitive　attachment　to　their　respective　chiefs。　The　power　of　the　nobility；　therefore；　which　depended　upon　those　circumstances；　was　quickly　destroyed；　and　the　monarch；　who　remained　at　the　head　of　the　nation　without　a　rival　to　counterbalance　his　influence；　had　no　difficulty　in　extending　his　influence　over　the　whole　of　his　dominions。　　　　　For　this　reason；　the　ancient　jurisdiction　and　authority　of　the　chiefs　is　not　very　distinctly　marked　in　the　early　history　of　those　nations；　among　whom　it　was　in　a　great　measure　destroyed　before　they　were　possessed　of　historical　records。　At　Rome；　so　early　as　the　reign　of　Servius　Tullius；　the　practice　of　convening　the　people　according　to　their　tribes；　or　curiae；　was　almost　entirely　laid　aside；　and　the　public　assemblies　were　held　in　such　a　manner；　that　every　individual　was　classed　according　to　his　wealth。　　　　　The　great　extent；　on　the　other　hand；　of　those　modern　kingdoms　which；　upon　the　downfall　of　the　Roman　empire；　were　erected　in　the　western　part　of　Europe；　was　formerly　mentioned；　and　the　political　consequences；　which　appear　to　have　been　immediately　derived　from　that　circumstance；　were　likewise　taken　notice　of。　The　numerous　tribes；　or　separate　families；　that　were　associated　under　a　sovereign；　far　from　being　collected　in　a　single　town；　were　spread　over　a　large　territory；　and　living　at　a　distance　from　each　other；　were　for　a　long　time　prevented　from　having　much　intercourse；　or　from　acquiring　the　habits　of　polished　society。　Strangers　to　regular　government；　and　little　restrained　by　the　authority　of　the　public　magistrate；　they　were　devoted　to　their　several　chiefs；　by　whom　they　were　encouraged　to　rob　and　plunder　their　neighbours；　and　protected　from　the　punishment　due　to　their　offences。　Mutual　depredations　became　the　source　of　perpetual　animosity　and　discord　among　neighbouring　barons；　who；　from　jealousy；　from　an　interference　of　interest；　or　from　resentment　of　injuries；　were；　for　the　most　part；　either　engaged　in　actual　hostilities；　or　lying　in　wait　for　a　favourable　opportunity　to　oppress　and　destroy　one　another。　Thus　every　kingdom　was　composed　of　a　great　variety　of　parts；　loosely　combine